💏Intro to Chemistry Unit 5 – Thermochemistry

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Thermochemistry studies the energy changes that occur during chemical reactions and physical transformations
• Exothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings, resulting in an increase in the temperature of the system
• Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings, resulting in a decrease in the temperature of the system
• Enthalpy ($H$) represents the total heat content of a system at constant pressure
  • Enthalpy change ($\Delta H$) is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a system during a process
• Calorimetry measures the heat transfer during chemical reactions or physical changes
  • Specific heat capacity ($c$) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius
• Hess's Law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the route taken from reactants to products

Energy in Chemical Reactions

• Chemical reactions involve the breaking and forming of chemical bonds, which results in changes in energy
• Exothermic reactions release energy in the form of heat, light, or sound (combustion of fuel)
  • Products of exothermic reactions have lower energy than the reactants
• Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings, often in the form of heat (photosynthesis)
  • Products of endothermic reactions have higher energy than the reactants
• The energy change in a chemical reaction is equal to the difference between the energy of the products and the energy of the reactants
• Activation energy is the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur
  • Catalysts lower the activation energy, increasing the rate of a reaction without being consumed

First Law of Thermodynamics

• The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
• In a closed system, the total energy remains constant
• The change in internal energy ($\Delta U$) of a system is equal to the heat ($q$) added to the system plus the work ($w$) done on the system: $\Delta U = q + w$
• For processes occurring at constant pressure, the change in enthalpy ($\Delta H$) is used instead of the change in internal energy
  • $\Delta H = \Delta U + P\Delta V$, where $P$ is the pressure and $\Delta V$ is the change in volume
• The First Law of Thermodynamics allows for the calculation of energy changes in chemical reactions and physical processes

Enthalpy and Heat of Reaction

• Enthalpy ($H$) is a state function that represents the total heat content of a system at constant pressure
• The change in enthalpy ($\Delta H$) during a chemical reaction is called the heat of reaction
  • $\Delta H = H_{products} - H_{reactants}$
• Exothermic reactions have a negative $\Delta H$ value, as they release heat to the surroundings
• Endothermic reactions have a positive $\Delta H$ value, as they absorb heat from the surroundings
• Standard enthalpy of formation ($\Delta H_f^{\circ}$) is the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements in their standard states at 1 atm pressure and a specified temperature (usually 25°C)
• Standard enthalpy of combustion ($\Delta H_c^{\circ}$) is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is completely burned in excess oxygen at standard conditions

Calorimetry and Heat Measurement

• Calorimetry is the measurement of heat transfer during chemical reactions or physical changes
• A calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat exchanged in a chemical reaction or physical process
  • Common types include bomb calorimeters and coffee cup calorimeters
• The heat absorbed or released by a system can be calculated using the equation: $q = mc\Delta T$
  • $m$ is the mass of the substance, $c$ is the specific heat capacity, and $\Delta T$ is the change in temperature
• The specific heat capacity ($c$) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius
  • Water has a high specific heat capacity of 4.18 J/g°C, making it an effective coolant
• Calorimetry experiments can be used to determine the enthalpy changes of chemical reactions, phase transitions, and other physical processes

Hess's Law and Enthalpy Calculations

• Hess's Law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the route taken from reactants to products
• This law allows for the calculation of enthalpy changes for reactions that cannot be directly measured
• Hess's Law is based on the principle that enthalpy is a state function, meaning that the change in enthalpy depends only on the initial and final states of the system
• To apply Hess's Law, reactions can be added, subtracted, or multiplied by coefficients to obtain the desired reaction
  • The corresponding enthalpy changes are also added, subtracted, or multiplied accordingly
• Standard enthalpy of formation values can be used in conjunction with Hess's Law to calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction
  • $\Delta H_{reaction}^{\circ} = \sum \Delta H_f^{\circ}(products) - \sum \Delta H_f^{\circ}(reactants)$

Bond Energies and Enthalpies

• Chemical bonds store potential energy, known as bond energy
• Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break a specific bond in one mole of a substance
  • Stronger bonds have higher bond energies and require more energy to break
• The enthalpy change of a reaction can be estimated using bond energies
  • $\Delta H_{reaction} = \sum(Bond\,energies\,of\,bonds\,broken) - \sum(Bond\,energies\,of\,bonds\,formed)$
• Bond enthalpies are average values derived from multiple compounds containing the same type of bond
  • They provide a reasonable estimate of the enthalpy change but may not be as accurate as experimentally determined values
• The difference between the bond energies of the reactants and products contributes to the overall enthalpy change of the reaction

Real-World Applications

• Thermochemistry has numerous real-world applications in various fields
• In the energy industry, the enthalpy of combustion is used to determine the energy content of fuels (natural gas, gasoline)
  • This information is crucial for optimizing fuel efficiency and reducing emissions
• In materials science, thermochemical data is used to design and develop new materials with desired properties (high-temperature ceramics, insulation)
• In biochemistry, thermochemistry plays a role in understanding the energy changes associated with metabolic processes (cellular respiration, photosynthesis)
  • This knowledge is essential for developing treatments for metabolic disorders and optimizing biofuel production
• In the food industry, calorimetry is used to determine the caloric content of food products
  • This information is required for accurate nutritional labeling and dietary planning
• In environmental science, thermochemistry is applied to study the energy balance of the Earth's climate system (greenhouse effect, global warming)
  • Understanding the energy changes involved in atmospheric processes is crucial for predicting and mitigating climate change