7.1 What Epistemology Studies

Epistemology digs into how we know what we know. It's all about understanding the nature of knowledge, where it comes from, and how we can be sure about what we believe.

This field tackles big questions like what counts as knowledge and how we justify our beliefs. It's crucial for other areas of philosophy and even impacts how we approach everyday thinking and decision-making.

The Nature and Scope of Epistemology

Core focus of epistemology

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• Examines the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge
• Investigates methods and standards for evaluating knowledge claims
• Addresses questions such as what is knowledge, sources of knowledge, justifying beliefs, and relationship between knowledge and certainty
• Provides a foundation for other branches of philosophy and academic disciplines (ethics, metaphysics, psychology)

Role of counterexample method

• Challenges or refutes philosophical theories or definitions
• Presents a scenario or case that contradicts the proposed theory or definition
• Identifies the philosophical concept or theory being analyzed
• Constructs a hypothetical situation that appears to meet the criteria of the concept or theory
• Demonstrates how the hypothetical situation leads to a conclusion that is inconsistent with the original concept or theory
• Exposes flaws or limitations in a philosophical argument
• Refines or modifies existing theories to account for the counterexample
• Stimulates further philosophical discussion and analysis (Gettier problem, Chinese room argument)

Types of Knowledge

A priori vs a posteriori knowledge

• A priori knowledge is independent of experience or empirical evidence
  • Known through reason alone without relying on sensory input (mathematical truths, logical principles)
  • Examples: $2 + 2 = 4$, the law of non-contradiction
• A posteriori knowledge is derived from experience or empirical evidence
  • Requires sensory input or observation to be known (scientific facts, historical events)
  • Examples: water boils at 100℃, the signing of the Declaration of Independence
• The distinction is central to understanding sources and justification of human knowledge

Types of knowledge

• Propositional knowledge (knowing-that) refers to factual information expressed in declarative statements
  • Consists of true, justified beliefs
  • Examples: the Earth orbits the Sun, Paris is the capital of France
• Procedural knowledge (knowing-how) involves skills, abilities, and practical know-how
  • Acquired through practice, experience, and learning
  • Examples: riding a bicycle, speaking a foreign language
• Acquaintance knowledge (knowing-by-acquaintance) is gained through direct, personal experience or familiarity
  • Involves a direct cognitive relation between the knower and the known
  • Examples: taste of an apple, feeling of happiness
• Understanding differences clarifies various ways humans acquire and possess knowledge

Theories of Knowledge Justification

Foundationalism and Coherentism

• Foundationalism posits that knowledge is built on a foundation of basic, self-evident beliefs
  • These foundational beliefs serve as the basis for justifying other beliefs
• Coherentism argues that knowledge is justified through a coherent system of interconnected beliefs
  • Emphasizes the logical consistency and mutual support among beliefs

Reliabilism and Virtue Epistemology

• Reliabilism focuses on the reliability of the cognitive processes that produce beliefs
  • Justification depends on whether the belief-forming process is generally truth-conducive
• Virtue epistemology emphasizes the role of intellectual virtues in knowledge acquisition
  • Considers traits like open-mindedness, intellectual courage, and curiosity as crucial for justified beliefs

Epistemological Relativism

• Challenges the notion of absolute or universal knowledge
• Argues that knowledge claims are relative to particular contexts, cultures, or individuals