2.2 Approaches to Research

Psychology research methods are the tools scientists use to understand human behavior and mental processes. From experiments to surveys, these techniques help uncover the mysteries of the mind and how we interact with the world around us.

Each method has its strengths and limitations. By combining different approaches, researchers can build a more complete picture of human psychology, from individual experiences to broader societal trends. Understanding these methods is key to interpreting psychological findings critically.

Research Methods in Psychology

Research methods psychologists use to study behavior and mental processes

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• Experimental research
  • Manipulates one or more independent variables (IV) to observe effects on dependent variables (DV)
  • Establishes cause-and-effect relationships by controlling extraneous variables through random assignment and control groups
  • Examples: studying the effect of sleep deprivation (IV) on reaction time (DV), or the impact of a new teaching method (IV) on test scores (DV)
• Correlational research
  • Examines relationships between variables without manipulation, measuring strength and direction using correlation coefficients
  • Cannot establish causation, only association between variables (positive, negative, or no correlation)
  • Examples: exploring the relationship between hours spent studying and exam grades, or between self-esteem and social media use
• Descriptive research
  • Systematically observes and describes behavior and mental processes using observational, survey, and archival techniques
  • Generates hypotheses for further research by providing a foundation of data on specific behaviors or phenomena
  • Examples: conducting a survey on attitudes towards climate change, or observing parent-child interactions in a playground
  • Utilizes various sampling methods to select participants representative of the target population

Advantages of observational research techniques

• Allows for studying behavior in natural settings without the artificial constraints of a lab environment
• Provides rich, detailed data about specific behaviors and interactions as they occur in real-world contexts
• Examples: observing customer behavior in a store to inform product placement, or studying animal behavior in the wild
• Limitations:
  • Observer bias may influence interpretation if researchers have preconceived notions or expectations
  • Hawthorne effect: participants may alter behavior when aware of being observed, reducing authenticity

Longitudinal vs cross-sectional designs

• Longitudinal research designs
  • Study the same individuals over an extended period to examine developmental changes and patterns within subjects
  • Types of longitudinal designs:
    1. Panel study: follows the same sample at multiple time points (e.g., tracking a cohort of students from elementary to high school)
    2. Cohort study: follows a group of individuals who share a common characteristic (e.g., studying the health outcomes of people born in a specific year)
  • Applications: studying the development of cognitive abilities, personality, or mental health over the lifespan
• Cross-sectional research designs
  • Study different groups of individuals at a single point in time to compare characteristics between groups
  • Provide a snapshot of differences between groups at various ages or developmental stages
  • Applications: comparing memory performance between young adults and older adults, or examining the prevalence of depression across age groups
  • Limitations: cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships or track individual changes over time

Correlation and causation in research

• Correlation measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
  • Correlation coefficients range from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1 (perfect positive correlation), with 0 indicating no relationship
  • Examples: a positive correlation between hours of exercise and cardiovascular health, or a negative correlation between stress levels and job satisfaction
• Causation refers to a cause-and-effect relationship, where one variable directly influences another
  • Establishing causation requires three conditions:
    1. Temporal precedence: the cause must precede the effect in time
    2. Covariation: changes in the cause must be associated with changes in the effect
    3. Elimination of alternative explanations: no other variables can account for the relationship
• Correlation does not imply causation: a correlation between variables does not necessarily mean one causes the other
  • Third variables or confounding factors may explain the relationship (e.g., ice cream sales and shark attacks may be correlated due to the common factor of summer weather)
  • Experimental research with manipulation of variables is necessary to establish causation by controlling for alternative explanations

Research Quality and Ethics

• Validity: The extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure and produces accurate results
• Reliability: The consistency and stability of research findings when repeated under similar conditions
• Research ethics: Guidelines and principles that ensure the protection of participants' rights, safety, and well-being
  • Informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm are key ethical considerations
• Data analysis: The process of examining, cleaning, and interpreting research data to draw meaningful conclusions
• Research design: The overall strategy and structure of a study, including methods for data collection and analysis