12.4 Defense Policy and the Military

Defense policy shapes America's military strategy and global presence. It involves complex decisions about force structure, spending, and responding to threats. The military's six branches, unified commands, and civilian oversight ensure a balanced approach to national security.

In the 21st century, the U.S. military faces new challenges like asymmetric warfare, cyber threats, and great power competition. Adapting to these requires modernization, technological innovation, and rethinking traditional approaches to defense and security.

U.S. Military Structure and Role

Branches and Missions

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• The U.S. military is composed of six main branches: the Army (land-based warfare), Navy (maritime operations), Air Force (aerial warfare), Marine Corps (amphibious operations), Coast Guard (maritime law enforcement and search and rescue), and Space Force (space operations)
• Each branch has a specific role and mission in defending the nation and its interests, such as the Army's focus on ground combat and the Navy's responsibility for maintaining sea control

Chain of Command and Oversight

• The President serves as the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, holding ultimate authority over the military
• The Secretary of Defense, a civilian appointed by the President, oversees the Department of Defense and manages the military, ensuring civilian control over the armed forces
• The Joint Chiefs of Staff, consisting of the highest-ranking officers from each branch (Chairman, Vice Chairman, and the chiefs of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps), advise the President and Secretary of Defense on military matters, providing expert guidance on strategy, operations, and resources

Unified Combatant Commands

• The Unified Combatant Commands are responsible for military operations in specific geographic regions (U.S. European Command) or functional areas (U.S. Special Operations Command)
• These commands, led by four-star generals or admirals, integrate the capabilities of multiple branches to execute missions and maintain readiness in their assigned areas of responsibility
• Examples include U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM), which oversees operations in the Middle East, and U.S. Cyber Command (CYBERCOM), which conducts cyber operations and defends U.S. networks

Primary Roles and Missions

• The U.S. military's primary role is to protect the nation's security interests, defend against external threats (terrorism and aggression by adversaries), and maintain global stability
• Key missions include deterrence (discouraging adversaries through military strength), power projection (deploying forces to distant regions), and humanitarian assistance (providing relief during natural disasters or crises)
• The military also engages in peacekeeping operations, supports diplomatic efforts, and builds partnerships with allies and partners to advance shared security interests

Defense Policy Formation

National Security Council and Strategy

• Defense policy is shaped by a complex interplay of national security interests, political considerations, and budgetary constraints
• The National Security Council (NSC), led by the President and including key cabinet members (Secretaries of State and Defense) and military advisors (National Security Advisor and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff), plays a crucial role in formulating defense policy and strategy
• The NSC develops the National Security Strategy, which outlines the administration's overarching approach to protecting U.S. interests and achieving national security objectives

Congressional Authority and Oversight

• Congress has the constitutional authority to declare war, raise and maintain the armed forces, and appropriate funds for defense spending, giving it significant influence over defense policy
• The House and Senate Armed Services Committees have jurisdiction over defense-related legislation and oversight of the military
• Congress approves the annual defense budget, which determines funding levels for various programs and initiatives, and can shape policy through the allocation of resources

Military-Industrial Complex Influence

• The military-industrial complex, a term coined by President Eisenhower, refers to the close relationship between the military, defense contractors (Lockheed Martin and Raytheon), and elected officials
• This complex can influence defense policy decisions and spending priorities, as stakeholders seek to maintain or expand their interests
• Lobbying efforts by defense contractors and the desire to maintain jobs in the defense industry can impact the allocation of resources and the development of new weapon systems (F-35 Joint Strike Fighter)

Impact of Defense Spending

Budget Allocation and Tradeoffs

• Defense spending constitutes a significant portion of the federal budget, often competing with other priorities such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure
• The U.S. has consistently been the world's largest military spender, with a defense budget that surpasses the combined spending of several other nations (China, Russia, and the United Kingdom)
• Debates over the appropriate level of defense spending often involve trade-offs between national security concerns and other domestic priorities, as well as questions about the efficiency and effectiveness of military programs

Economic Effects and Regional Disparities

• Defense spending can have both positive and negative effects on the economy
• It can stimulate economic growth through job creation (manufacturing and research) and technological innovation (GPS and the Internet), but it can also divert resources from other productive sectors and contribute to budget deficits
• The economic impact of defense spending varies by region, with some states (California and Virginia) and communities heavily dependent on military bases and defense contracts for employment and economic activity

21st Century Military Challenges

Asymmetric Warfare and Terrorism

• Asymmetric warfare, in which weaker adversaries use unconventional tactics to counter the superior military power of the U.S., has become increasingly prevalent in conflicts such as those in Afghanistan and Iraq
• Terrorism, insurgencies, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction pose significant challenges to traditional military doctrine and require adaptable, intelligence-driven responses
• The U.S. military has had to develop new strategies (counterinsurgency) and capabilities (unmanned aerial vehicles) to address these threats effectively

Great Power Competition and Modernization

• The rise of great power competition, particularly with China and Russia, has renewed focus on the need for modernization and readiness to confront near-peer adversaries
• China's military modernization and assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific region have led to increased U.S. investment in naval and air capabilities, as well as strengthened alliances with regional partners (Japan and Australia)
• Russia's military interventions (Ukraine) and hybrid warfare tactics have prompted the U.S. to reinforce its commitments to NATO and enhance deterrence in Europe

Cybersecurity and Technological Change

• Cybersecurity threats, including state-sponsored hacking (Chinese intellectual property theft), cyber espionage, and the potential for cyber attacks on critical infrastructure (power grids), have emerged as a major national security concern requiring both defensive and offensive capabilities
• The rapid pace of technological change, including advances in artificial intelligence, robotics, and autonomous systems, is transforming the nature of warfare and requiring the military to adapt its strategies and capabilities accordingly
• The U.S. military is investing in research and development of emerging technologies (hypersonic weapons) to maintain its technological edge and prepare for future conflicts

Climate Change and Humanitarian Response

• Climate change and its potential to exacerbate global instability, resource scarcity, and humanitarian crises presents a growing challenge for the military in terms of disaster response and conflict prevention
• The military plays a critical role in providing humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, both domestically (Hurricane Katrina) and internationally (Haiti earthquake)
• The Department of Defense has recognized climate change as a threat multiplier and is working to incorporate climate considerations into its planning and operations, such as preparing for sea-level rise impacts on coastal installations