3.3 Buddhist Sculpture and Iconography

Buddhist sculpture and iconography evolved from symbolic representations to human forms, reflecting regional styles and influences. Early depictions used symbols like the Bodhi tree, while later sculptures incorporated specific physical characteristics, hand gestures, and postures to represent the Buddha.

The development of Buddha images was influenced by Greco-Roman art and Indian concepts of deified kings. Sculptures began to include specific attributes like elongated earlobes and the ushnisha, as well as various mudras and asanas to convey different aspects of Buddhist teachings.

Iconographic Attributes of Early Buddhist Sculpture

Symbolic Depictions of the Buddha

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• Early Buddhist sculpture depicted the Buddha through symbols like the Bodhi tree (tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment), empty throne, footprints, or the Wheel of Dharma (representing the Buddha's teachings) rather than in human form
• The earliest known representations of the Buddha in human form date to the 1st-2nd centuries CE in Gandhara (present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) and Mathura in central India

Regional Styles and Influences

• Gandharan Buddhist sculpture was influenced by Greco-Roman artistic traditions, characterized by:
  • Naturalistic anatomical features
  • Flowing drapery
  • Wavy hair
• Mathuran Buddhist sculpture developed a more idealized, abstract style with:
  • Simplified body contours
  • Heavy garments
  • Hair arranged in snail-like curls

Mudras: Symbolic Hand Gestures

• Common iconographic hand gestures (mudras) in Buddhist sculpture include:
  • Abhaya mudra: Gesture of fearlessness, with the right hand raised and palm facing outward
  • Varada mudra: Gesture of generosity, with the right hand lowered and palm facing forward
  • Dhyana mudra: Gesture of meditation, with both hands resting in the lap, palms facing upward

Development of the Buddha Image

Evolution from Aniconic to Anthropomorphic Representations

• The Buddha image evolved from aniconic symbols to depictions in human form, likely influenced by:
  • Greco-Roman art, which portrayed deities in anthropomorphic form
  • The concept of deified kings in ancient India, who were sometimes represented in sculptures

Physical Characteristics and Marks of a Great Being

• The Buddha is typically depicted with certain physical characteristics known as the 32 major and 80 minor marks of a mahapurusha (great being), such as:
  • Elongated earlobes, symbolizing the Buddha's former status as a prince who wore heavy earrings
  • A raised bump (ushnisha) on the crown of the head, representing the Buddha's spiritual wisdom and enlightenment
  • A mark (urna) between the eyebrows, symbolizing the Buddha's third eye of spiritual insight

Postures and Positions of the Buddha

• The seated Buddha can be portrayed in various postures (asanas), including:
  • Lotus position (padmasana): Legs crossed with feet resting on the opposite thighs
  • Position of heroism (virasana): Right leg bent and resting on the seat, left leg hanging down
  • Adamantine position (vajrasana): Legs crossed at the ankles with both feet resting on the ground
• Standing Buddha images often depict the Buddha in the act of teaching or taking a step forward, symbolizing the dissemination of his teachings
• The reclining Buddha represents the Buddha's passing into final nirvana (mahaparinirvana) at the end of his earthly life

Symbolic Meaning in Buddhist Sculpture

Narrative Scenes from the Buddha's Life

• Episodes from the Buddha's life, such as his birth (emerging from Queen Maya's side in Lumbini), enlightenment (under the Bodhi tree), first sermon (at Sarnath), and final nirvana (at Kushinagar), are frequently depicted in narrative Buddhist sculpture
• Jataka tales, which recount the Buddha's previous lives, are another common subject in Buddhist narrative art, often illustrating the Buddha's practice of virtues like:
  • Generosity, as exemplified in the tale of Prince Vessantara
  • Compassion, as demonstrated in the story of the Buddha offering his body to feed a hungry tigress
  • Self-sacrifice, as portrayed in the account of the Buddha's previous life as a hare who jumped into a fire to offer his flesh to a hungry traveler

Attendant Figures and Their Iconography

• The Buddha's attendants, such as bodhisattvas (beings on the path to enlightenment), disciples, and protective deities, are often depicted alongside the Buddha, each with their own iconographic attributes and symbolic meanings
  • Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara (bodhisattva of compassion) and Maitreya (future Buddha), are often adorned with princely garments and jewelry, symbolizing their willingness to postpone their own enlightenment to help others
  • The Buddha's chief disciples, Shariputra and Maudgalyayana, are sometimes depicted flanking the Buddha, representing the importance of the monastic community
  • Protective deities, like the yaksha Vajrapani, are portrayed as muscular figures holding weapons, symbolizing their role as guardians of the Buddha and his teachings

Mudras and Their Meanings

• Symbolic hand gestures (mudras) convey specific aspects of the Buddha's teachings or events from his life, such as:
  • The earth-touching gesture (bhumisparsa mudra), with the right hand touching the ground, associated with the Buddha's enlightenment and his calling of the earth goddess to witness his achievement
  • The teaching gesture (dharmachakra mudra), with the hands held at chest level, thumbs and index fingers forming a circle, representing the Buddha's first sermon and the setting in motion of the Wheel of Dharma
  • The meditation gesture (dhyana mudra), with the hands resting in the lap, palms facing upward, symbolizing the Buddha's practice of meditation and the attainment of spiritual wisdom

Multiple Buddhas and Cosmic Symbolism

• The use of multiple Buddhas or bodhisattvas in a single composition can represent different aspects of the Buddha's nature or the cosmic Buddhas of the Mahayana tradition
  • The five dhyani Buddhas (Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi) represent different aspects of the Buddha's wisdom and are associated with specific directions, colors, and mudras
  • The thousand-armed, eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara symbolizes the bodhisattva's infinite compassion and ability to help countless beings simultaneously

Patronage and Regional Variations in Early Buddhist Sculpture

Patrons and Donors

• Buddhist sculpture was often commissioned by royal patrons, wealthy merchants, or monastic communities to:
  • Gain spiritual merit through the act of dana (generosity)
  • Demonstrate their devotion to the Buddha's teachings
  • Enhance the prestige and influence of the Buddhist community
• Inscriptions on Buddhist sculptures or accompanying dedicatory tablets can provide valuable information about the patrons, artists, and historical context of the artwork, such as:
  • The names and titles of the donors
  • The motivations behind the commissioning of the sculpture
  • The date and location of the sculpture's creation

Regional Styles and Materials

• Regional variations in early Buddhist sculpture reflect the influence of local artistic traditions, materials, and cultural preferences
• The Gandharan style of Buddhist sculpture, which flourished in the northwestern region of ancient India, is known for:
  • Its Greco-Roman influenced naturalism, with realistic proportions and flowing drapery
  • The use of schist stone, a metamorphic rock that allowed for detailed carving
• The Mathuran style, which developed in central India, is characterized by:
  • Its use of red sandstone, a softer material that lent itself to a more idealized, abstract style
  • More substantial, voluminous figures with heavy garments and jewelry
• The Amaravati style, which originated in southern India, is known for:
  • Its elaborate narrative reliefs depicting scenes from the Buddha's life and Jataka tales
  • The use of white marble or limestone, which allowed for intricate carving and a luminous appearance

The Gupta Period and Its Influence

• The Gupta period (4th-6th centuries CE) saw the development of a more classical, balanced style of Buddhist sculpture that became influential throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond
  • Gupta-style Buddha images are characterized by their serene facial expressions, graceful poses, and finely rendered drapery
  • The Gupta style influenced Buddhist art in other regions, such as Sarnath in northern India and Nalanda in eastern India, as well as in Southeast Asian countries like Indonesia and Thailand