🧋Intro to Asian American History Unit 2 – Chinese Exclusion & Anti-Asian Bias (1882-1943)

Historical Context

• Chinese immigration to the United States increased significantly during the California Gold Rush (1848-1855) and the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad (1863-1869)
• Many Chinese immigrants worked as laborers, miners, and in service industries, often facing discrimination and poor working conditions
• Economic downturns and labor competition led to growing anti-Chinese sentiment among white Americans, particularly in the American West
• Xenophobic fears and racial prejudices fueled the perception of Chinese immigrants as a threat to American society and values
  • "Yellow Peril" stereotype portrayed Chinese as a danger to Western civilization
• Nativist movements gained traction, advocating for restrictions on Chinese immigration and the rights of Chinese residents in the United States
• Discriminatory local and state laws targeting Chinese immigrants were enacted, such as the Foreign Miners' Tax in California (1850) and the Cubic Air Ordinance in San Francisco (1870)

Key Legislation

• Page Act of 1875 prohibited the immigration of Chinese women, ostensibly to prevent prostitution but effectively limiting the formation of Chinese families in the United States
• Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 suspended the immigration of Chinese laborers for 10 years and denied citizenship to Chinese immigrants
  • First significant law restricting immigration based on race and national origin in U.S. history
• Geary Act of 1892 extended the Chinese Exclusion Act for an additional 10 years and required Chinese residents to carry identification certificates
• Scott Act of 1888 prohibited the return of Chinese laborers who had left the United States, even if they had previously obtained legal reentry permits
• Alien Contract Labor Law of 1885 prohibited the importation of foreign laborers under contract, disproportionately affecting Asian immigrants
• Immigration Act of 1917 (Asiatic Barred Zone Act) restricted immigration from most of Asia and the Pacific Islands
• Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed Act) established national origins quotas, effectively barring immigration from Asia

Impacts on Asian Communities

• Chinese Exclusion Act and subsequent legislation severely limited the growth and development of Chinese American communities
• Separation of families due to immigration restrictions led to the formation of "bachelor societies" in many Chinatowns
• Limited economic opportunities and discriminatory laws forced many Chinese immigrants into segregated ethnic enclaves and low-paying jobs
• Anti-Chinese violence and riots occurred in various cities, such as the Rock Springs Massacre (1885) and the Hells Canyon Massacre (1887)
• Exclusion laws and discriminatory policies created a climate of fear and insecurity among Chinese immigrants and their descendants
• Restrictions on naturalization and citizenship rights left many Chinese Americans in a state of legal limbo and vulnerability
• Other Asian immigrant groups, such as Japanese and South Asians, also faced exclusionary policies and discrimination as a result of the precedent set by Chinese exclusion

Resistance and Activism

• Chinese immigrants and their allies challenged exclusionary laws and policies through legal battles, lobbying efforts, and public campaigns
  • Yick Wo v. Hopkins (1886) Supreme Court case ruled that laws with unequal impact on different groups were unconstitutional
• Chinese American civil rights organizations, such as the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association and the Chinese American Citizens Alliance, advocated for the rights and welfare of Chinese communities
• Boycotts and strikes organized by Chinese workers protested discriminatory treatment and unfair labor practices, such as the Transcontinental Railroad strike (1867) and the San Francisco Cigar Makers' Strike (1882)
• Chinese American journalists and writers, such as Wong Chin Foo and Yan Phou Lee, used their platforms to challenge stereotypes and advocate for the rights of Chinese immigrants
• Alliances formed between Chinese Americans and other marginalized groups, such as the partnership between the Chinese and African American communities in the Mississippi Delta region
• International diplomacy and pressure from the Chinese government played a role in the eventual repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943

Cultural and Social Consequences

• Anti-Asian stereotypes and prejudices became entrenched in American popular culture, media, and public discourse
  • Depictions of Chinese as "exotic," "inscrutable," and "unassimilable" in literature, film, and theater
• Exclusionary laws and discrimination led to the development of distinct Chinese American cultural institutions, such as Chinese language schools, newspapers, and associations
• Chinese American identity formation was shaped by the experiences of exclusion, racism, and the struggle for belonging and acceptance
• Intergenerational tensions arose between Chinese immigrants and their American-born children, who often navigated different cultural and linguistic worlds
• Exclusion and discrimination had lasting impacts on the socioeconomic status and educational attainment of Chinese Americans
• The legacy of exclusion contributed to the "model minority" myth and the erasure of the diverse experiences and challenges faced by Asian Americans

Legacy and Modern Relevance

• Chinese Exclusion Act set a precedent for race-based immigration policies in the United States, paving the way for the exclusion of other Asian groups and the national origins quota system
• Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943 (Magnuson Act) was a symbolic victory but maintained tight restrictions on Chinese immigration until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
• Exclusion era history has shaped the ongoing struggle for Asian American civil rights, political representation, and cultural recognition
• Anti-Asian racism and violence, such as the murder of Vincent Chin (1982) and the surge of hate crimes during the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrate the persistence of xenophobia and racial prejudice
• The Chinese Exclusion Act and its legacy have been invoked in contemporary debates on immigration policy, national security, and racial profiling
  • Parallels drawn between the Chinese Exclusion Act and the Trump administration's "Muslim Ban" and anti-immigrant rhetoric
• Efforts to commemorate and educate the public about the history of Chinese exclusion, such as the establishment of the Chinese Exclusion Act Case Files at the National Archives and the creation of memorials and museums

Important Figures and Events

• Denis Kearney, leader of the Workingmen's Party of California, known for his anti-Chinese rhetoric and the slogan "The Chinese Must Go!"
• Leland Stanford, industrialist and politician who supported Chinese exclusion and signed the California Constitution of 1879, which prohibited the employment of Chinese workers
• Wong Kim Ark, plaintiff in the landmark Supreme Court case United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), which established birthright citizenship for children born in the U.S. to foreign parents
• Geary Act of 1892, extended the Chinese Exclusion Act for an additional 10 years and required Chinese residents to carry identification certificates
• San Francisco plague outbreak of 1900-1904, led to the quarantine and discrimination against Chinese residents in Chinatown
• Angel Island Immigration Station (1910-1940), primary entry point for Asian immigrants during the exclusion era, known for its harsh conditions and interrogations
• Tape v. Hurley (1885), California Supreme Court case that challenged the exclusion of Chinese American children from public schools

Further Reading and Resources

• "The Chinese Exclusion Act" by Andrew Gyory, a comprehensive history of the exclusion era and its impact on Chinese Americans
• "Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans" by Jean Pfaelzer, an account of the anti-Chinese violence and riots in the American West
• "At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943" by Erika Lee, an examination of the experiences of Chinese immigrants during the exclusion period
• "The Making of Asian America: A History" by Erika Lee, an overview of Asian American history, including the exclusion era and its legacy
• "American Born Chinese" by Gene Luen Yang, a graphic novel that explores themes of identity, assimilation, and the impact of stereotypes on Chinese Americans
• Chinese Exclusion Act Case Files, a collection of over 250,000 individual case files and related documents at the National Archives, documenting the impact of the exclusion laws on Chinese immigrants and their families
• "The Chinese Exclusion Act" (PBS documentary), a film that examines the history and legacy of the Chinese Exclusion Act through personal stories and expert interviews
• Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation, an organization dedicated to preserving the history of the Angel Island Immigration Station and promoting the stories of Asian American immigrants