3.1 Executive Order 9066 and relocation

Executive Order 9066, issued in 1942, led to the forced relocation of 120,000 Japanese Americans during World War II. This action, fueled by racism and fear, uprooted entire communities from the West Coast, sending them to remote concentration camps.

The order's impact was devastating. Families lost homes, businesses, and savings. Living in harsh camp conditions, Japanese Americans faced long-lasting trauma. This dark chapter in U.S. history raises critical questions about civil liberties and racial prejudice during wartime.

Historical context of Executive Order 9066

Political and social climate

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• President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, responding to the Pearl Harbor attack and U.S. entry into World War II
• Pre-existing anti-Asian sentiment and racial prejudice in the United States, particularly on the West Coast, contributed to the order's implementation
• False perception of Japanese Americans as potential spies or saboteurs fueled support for the order among government officials and the general public
• Key figures advocated for and implemented the order
  • General John L. DeWitt
  • Attorney General Earl Warren
• Order justified under the guise of "military necessity"
  • Later investigations revealed racism and economic motivations as significant factors
• Historical context included discriminatory policies that had already marginalized Japanese Americans
  • Alien Land Laws (prohibited land ownership by Asian immigrants)
  • Immigration restrictions (1924 Immigration Act)

Authorization and scope

• Order authorized the Secretary of War to designate "military areas" for exclusion
• Allowed for removal and incarceration of Japanese Americans
• Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans affected
  • Two-thirds were U.S. citizens
• Primarily impacted West Coast residents
  • California
  • Oregon
  • Washington

Impact on Japanese American communities

Economic and social disruption

• Forced removal from homes led to significant economic losses
  • Estimates range from $1-3 billion in 1940s currency
• Loss of property and businesses
  • Many had to sell assets at a fraction of their value
  • Some entrusted property to neighbors or friends, often never recovering it
• Disruption of community structures
  • Religious institutions (Buddhist temples, Christian churches)
  • Cultural organizations (Japanese language schools)
• Educational and career opportunities severely limited
  • Students forced to abandon studies
  • Professionals lost established practices or businesses

Psychological and cultural impact

• Long-lasting psychological trauma
  • Anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Erosion of cultural ties
  • Breakdown of traditional family structures
  • Loss of language and cultural practices
• Climate of fear and suspicion created
  • Increased discrimination and violence against Japanese Americans
  • Affected those not directly incarcerated (Hawaiian Japanese Americans)
• Shift in Japanese American identity and political consciousness
  • Influenced future civil rights movements (Redress Movement)
  • Led to community activism (Japanese American Citizens League)

Forced relocation and consequences

Relocation process

• Creation of military exclusion zones along the West Coast
• Short notice given for evacuation
  • Often only a few days to prepare
• Evacuees forced to hastily sell or store possessions
  • Many suffered significant financial losses
• Assembly centers used as temporary holding facilities
  • Often located at fairgrounds (Puyallup, Washington)
  • Racetracks (Santa Anita, California)
• Transportation to permanent concentration camps
  • Often by train under military guard
  • Long journeys in crowded conditions

Concentration camp conditions

• Ten major concentration camps established in remote areas across seven states
  • Manzanar (California)
  • Tule Lake (California)
  • Minidoka (Idaho)
• Harsh living conditions
  • Inadequate housing (tar paper barracks)
  • Limited food options and poor quality
  • Insufficient medical care
• Cramped living quarters with minimal privacy
  • Families often shared single rooms
• Strict military oversight and curfews imposed
• Makeshift schools established
  • Often understaffed and under-resourced
• Health issues arose due to poor conditions
  • Outbreaks of diseases (influenza, dysentery)
  • Mental health problems (depression, anxiety)

Constitutionality and ethics of Executive Order 9066

Legal challenges and precedents

• Supreme Court case Korematsu v. United States (1944) upheld the order's constitutionality
  • Set a controversial legal precedent
  • Later criticized as one of the Court's greatest mistakes
• Order violated several constitutional rights
  • Due process (5th Amendment)
  • Equal protection under the law (14th Amendment)
  • Protection against unreasonable search and seizure (4th Amendment)
• Later investigations revealed the order's unjustified nature
  • Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (1980-1983)
  • Concluded order was driven by "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership"

Ethical implications and legacy

• Targeting of a specific ethnic group raised serious ethical questions
  • Racial profiling
  • Balance between national security and civil liberties
• Highlighted the U.S. government's failure to protect minority rights during crisis
• Civil Liberties Act of 1988 addressed historical wrongs
  • Formal apology for internment
  • Provided reparations ($20,000 to each surviving internee)
• Legacy continues to inform contemporary debates
  • Civil liberties during wartime
  • Treatment of minority groups in times of national crisis (Muslim Americans post-9/11)
• Educational initiatives developed to prevent similar injustices
  • Japanese American National Museum in Los Angeles
  • Manzanar National Historic Site