🦫Intro to Chemical Engineering Unit 2 – Basic Concepts in Chemical Engineering

Key Principles and Definitions

• Chemical engineering applies principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics to solve practical problems
• Involves the design, operation, and optimization of processes that transform raw materials into valuable products (pharmaceuticals, fuels, chemicals, materials)
• Focuses on the production and processing of chemicals on a large scale for industrial purposes
• Key principles include mass conservation, energy conservation, thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and chemical kinetics
• Encompasses the development and design of chemical processes, equipment, and plants
• Plays a crucial role in addressing global challenges (sustainable energy, clean water, food production, environmental protection)
• Requires a strong foundation in mathematics, including calculus, differential equations, and numerical methods
  • Mathematical modeling is essential for analyzing and optimizing chemical processes

Mass and Energy Balances

• Mass balance is a fundamental principle stating that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical process
  • Total mass of inputs equals total mass of outputs plus any accumulation within the system
• Energy balance is based on the first law of thermodynamics, which states that energy is conserved in a closed system
  • Total energy input equals total energy output plus any accumulation within the system
• Mass and energy balances are essential for analyzing, designing, and optimizing chemical processes
• Material balances involve tracking the flow and composition of materials through a process
  • Used to determine the required quantities of raw materials, products, and byproducts
• Energy balances account for various forms of energy (heat, work, kinetic, potential) in a process
  • Used to calculate energy requirements, heat exchanger duties, and power consumption
• Mass and energy balances are performed on individual units (reactors, separators, heat exchangers) and entire processes
• Steady-state balances assume no accumulation over time, while dynamic balances consider changes in mass and energy over time

Thermodynamics Basics

• Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformations, focusing on heat, work, and equilibrium
• First law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved in a closed system
  • Change in internal energy equals heat added minus work done by the system
• Second law of thermodynamics introduces the concept of entropy, a measure of disorder or randomness
  • Entropy of an isolated system always increases or remains constant
• Thermodynamic properties (temperature, pressure, volume, enthalpy, entropy) describe the state of a system
• Phase equilibrium occurs when two or more phases (solid, liquid, gas) coexist at the same temperature and pressure
  • Described by phase diagrams, which show the conditions for phase transitions
• Chemical equilibrium is the state where the forward and reverse reactions proceed at equal rates
  • Equilibrium constant $K$ relates the concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium
• Gibbs free energy $G$ is a thermodynamic potential that determines the spontaneity of a process
  • A process is spontaneous when $\Delta G < 0$ at constant temperature and pressure
• Thermodynamic efficiency is the ratio of useful work output to total energy input in a process

Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals

• Fluid mechanics is the study of the behavior of fluids (liquids and gases) at rest and in motion
• Fluids are characterized by their density $\rho$, viscosity $\mu$, and compressibility
• Pressure $P$ is the force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a surface
  • Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the weight of a fluid at rest
• Flow can be laminar (smooth, parallel streamlines) or turbulent (chaotic, mixing)
  • Reynolds number $Re$ determines the flow regime based on fluid properties and geometry
• Bernoulli's equation relates pressure, velocity, and elevation in an ideal, steady-state flow
  • $P + \frac{1}{2}\rho v^2 + \rho gh = constant$
• Pressure drop in pipes is caused by friction and is described by the Darcy-Weisbach equation
  • $\Delta P = f \frac{L}{D} \frac{\rho v^2}{2}$, where $f$ is the friction factor
• Pumps are used to transport fluids and increase their pressure
  • Pump performance is characterized by head $H$, flow rate $Q$, and efficiency $\eta$
• Valves control the flow rate and direction of fluids in a process
  • Common types include gate valves, globe valves, and check valves

Heat Transfer Concepts

• Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between systems due to a temperature difference
• Three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation
• Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid or stationary fluid due to molecular vibrations
  • Described by Fourier's law, $q = -kA\frac{dT}{dx}$, where $k$ is thermal conductivity
• Convection is the transfer of heat between a surface and a moving fluid
  • Described by Newton's law of cooling, $q = hA(T_s - T_\infty)$, where $h$ is the convective heat transfer coefficient
• Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves
  • Described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, $q = \varepsilon\sigma A(T_1^4 - T_2^4)$, where $\varepsilon$ is emissivity and $\sigma$ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
• Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate heat transfer between two fluids without mixing them
  • Common types include shell-and-tube, plate, and double-pipe heat exchangers
• The overall heat transfer coefficient $U$ accounts for all resistances to heat transfer in a system
  • $\frac{1}{UA} = \frac{1}{h_1A_1} + \frac{\Delta x}{kA} + \frac{1}{h_2A_2}$ for a plane wall
• The log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used to calculate the heat transfer rate in heat exchangers
  • $LMTD = \frac{(T_{h,in} - T_{c,out}) - (T_{h,out} - T_{c,in})}{\ln\left(\frac{T_{h,in} - T_{c,out}}{T_{h,out} - T_{c,in}}\right)}$

Chemical Reaction Engineering

• Chemical reaction engineering deals with the design and operation of reactors for chemical processes
• Reaction rate $r$ is the speed at which reactants are consumed or products are formed
  • Affected by temperature, pressure, concentration, and catalyst
• Rate law expresses the dependence of reaction rate on concentrations of reactants
  • For a general reaction $aA + bB \rightarrow cC + dD$, rate law is $r = k[A]^m[B]^n$, where $k$ is the rate constant and $m$, $n$ are reaction orders
• Stoichiometry relates the molar quantities of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation
  • Used to determine the limiting reactant and product yields
• Batch reactors operate with a fixed amount of reactants, and composition changes over time
  • Modeled by $\frac{dC_A}{dt} = -rV$, where $C_A$ is the concentration of reactant A and $V$ is the reactor volume
• Continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTRs) operate at steady state with continuous flow of reactants and products
  • Modeled by $F_A - F_{A0} = -rV$, where $F_A$ is the molar flow rate of A
• Plug flow reactors (PFRs) have no mixing in the flow direction, and composition varies along the reactor length
  • Modeled by $\frac{dF_A}{dV} = -r$
• Catalysts increase reaction rates without being consumed, by providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy

Process Control Essentials

• Process control maintains process variables (temperature, pressure, flow rate, level) at desired setpoints
• Feedback control measures the process variable and adjusts the manipulated variable to minimize the error
  • Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller is commonly used, with $u(t) = K_p e(t) + K_i \int_0^t e(\tau) d\tau + K_d \frac{de(t)}{dt}$
• Feedforward control measures disturbances and adjusts the manipulated variable before the process is affected
  • Requires a model relating the disturbance to the process variable
• Control loop consists of the process, sensor, controller, and actuator
  • Sensor measures the process variable, controller computes the control action, and actuator implements the control action
• Stability is the ability of a control system to return to the setpoint after a disturbance
  • Determined by the location of closed-loop poles in the complex plane
• Tuning involves adjusting controller parameters ($K_p$, $K_i$, $K_d$) to achieve the desired performance
  • Methods include Ziegler-Nichols, Cohen-Coon, and internal model control (IMC)
• Distributed control systems (DCS) and programmable logic controllers (PLC) are used for process automation and control
  • DCS for continuous processes, PLC for discrete and batch processes

Safety and Environmental Considerations

• Chemical processes involve hazardous materials, high temperatures and pressures, and reactive chemicals
• Process safety focuses on preventing accidents, injuries, and environmental damage
  • Hazard identification, risk assessment, and risk management are key components
• Inherent safety design aims to eliminate or reduce hazards by modifying the process, rather than adding protective layers
  • Principles include minimization, substitution, moderation, and simplification
• Layers of protection provide multiple barriers against accidents
  • Include basic process control system (BPCS), alarms, safety instrumented systems (SIS), and physical protection (relief valves, containment)
• Environmental regulations set limits on emissions, effluents, and waste disposal
  • Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in the US
• Life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluates the environmental impact of a product or process from cradle to grave
  • Considers raw material extraction, manufacturing, use, and end-of-life disposal
• Green engineering principles aim to minimize the environmental impact of chemical processes
  • Include waste reduction, energy efficiency, renewable feedstocks, and safer chemistry
• Process safety and environmental considerations are integral to the design and operation of chemical plants
  • Require a culture of safety, continuous improvement, and stakeholder engagement