🌵Intro to Chicanx and Latinx Studies Unit 3 – Mexican-American War & Treaty of Guadalupe

Historical Context

• Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 after a long struggle
• The United States, a young nation, was expanding westward under the concept of Manifest Destiny
  • Manifest Destiny: belief that U.S. expansion across the continent was justified and inevitable
• Tensions between Mexico and the U.S. grew due to disputes over the annexation of Texas
  • Texas gained independence from Mexico in 1836 and later sought annexation by the U.S.
• The U.S. viewed the acquisition of western territories as crucial to its economic and political growth
• Mexico faced internal political instability and struggled to maintain control over its northern territories
• The U.S. offered to purchase California and New Mexico from Mexico, but Mexico refused

Causes of the War

• Annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845 heightened tensions with Mexico
• Boundary disputes between Texas and Mexico, particularly over the Nueces River and Rio Grande
• President James K. Polk's aggressive expansionist policies and desire to acquire California and other Mexican territories
• U.S. claims of unpaid debts and mistreatment of American citizens in Mexico
• The U.S. provoked a military confrontation by sending troops led by General Zachary Taylor into disputed territory
• Mexico viewed the U.S. actions as a violation of its sovereignty and an act of war
• Failure of diplomatic efforts to resolve the growing tensions between the two nations

Key Events and Battles

• April 25, 1846: Mexican cavalry attacked U.S. troops near the Rio Grande, leading to the outbreak of war
• May 13, 1846: U.S. Congress declared war on Mexico, citing the Rio Grande attack and other grievances
• June 1846: U.S. forces under General Stephen W. Kearny occupied Santa Fe, New Mexico without resistance
• September 1846: U.S. forces captured the city of Monterrey after a hard-fought battle
  • Battle of Monterrey: U.S. troops led by General Zachary Taylor defeated Mexican forces in a three-day battle
• February 1847: Battle of Buena Vista, where outnumbered U.S. forces repelled a larger Mexican army
• March 1847: U.S. forces under General Winfield Scott captured the port city of Veracruz after a siege
• September 1847: Battle of Chapultepec, U.S. troops captured the fortified castle defending Mexico City
• September 14, 1847: U.S. forces occupied Mexico City, effectively ending major combat operations

Major Figures

• James K. Polk: U.S. President during the war, pursued expansionist policies and orchestrated the conflict
• Zachary Taylor: U.S. General who led troops in key battles, later became the 12th U.S. President
• Winfield Scott: U.S. General who commanded the invasion of central Mexico and captured Mexico City
• Antonio López de Santa Anna: Mexican General and President, led Mexican forces during the war
  • Santa Anna had a tumultuous political career, serving as President of Mexico multiple times
• John C. Frémont: U.S. explorer and military officer who played a role in the conquest of California
• Nicholas Trist: U.S. diplomat who negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico
• José Joaquín de Herrera: President of Mexico who faced the difficult task of leading the country during the war

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• Signed on February 2, 1848, ending the Mexican-American War
• Mexico ceded a vast territory to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming
  • The ceded territory, known as the Mexican Cession, totaled over 525,000 square miles
• U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million in compensation for the ceded territory
• Rio Grande was established as the southern boundary of Texas
• Mexicans living in the ceded territory were given the option to become U.S. citizens or move to Mexico
  • Those who chose to stay were guaranteed property rights and freedom of religion
• The treaty was ratified by both countries, although it faced opposition in Mexico
• The treaty significantly altered the political map of North America and had lasting consequences

Consequences and Aftermath

• Mexico lost nearly half of its territory to the United States, a devastating blow to the nation
• The U.S. gained a vast area rich in natural resources, including gold in California, which sparked the California Gold Rush
• Territorial acquisition fueled the ongoing debate over the expansion of slavery in the U.S.
  • The question of whether the new territories would be slave states or free states intensified sectional tensions
• The war and treaty heightened racial and cultural tensions between Anglo-Americans and Mexicans
• Mexican-Americans faced discrimination, loss of land, and cultural marginalization in the newly acquired territories
• The war had a profound impact on American politics, with the Whig Party opposing the war and the Democratic Party supporting it
• The military success of the war boosted American nationalism and belief in Manifest Destiny
• The financial cost of the war burdened both countries, particularly Mexico, which faced a large war debt

Impact on Mexican-Americans

• Mexican-Americans became a significant minority group within the United States overnight
• Many faced discrimination, segregation, and violence in the newly acquired territories
• The treaty guaranteed property rights, but many Mexican landowners lost their lands through legal manipulation and fraud
  • Land dispossession had long-lasting economic and social consequences for Mexican-American communities
• Mexican-Americans often faced language barriers and limited access to education and political representation
• The cultural and linguistic heritage of Mexican-Americans was often suppressed or marginalized
• Mexican-Americans developed strategies of resistance, adaptation, and cultural preservation
• The war and its aftermath laid the foundation for the complex relationship between Mexican-Americans and the U.S. government

Legacy and Modern Perspectives

• The Mexican-American War is seen as a turning point in U.S. history, marking the nation's emergence as a continental power
• The war and treaty have been subject to historical reinterpretation and critical analysis
  • Some view the war as an unjust act of American aggression and imperialism
• The legacy of the war continues to shape U.S.-Mexico relations and debates over border issues
• Mexican-Americans have played a significant role in shaping the cultural, economic, and political landscape of the American Southwest
• The war and treaty have left a complex legacy of cultural exchange, conflict, and ongoing challenges for Mexican-American communities
• Efforts to preserve and promote Mexican-American history and culture have gained momentum in recent decades
• The war and its consequences continue to be studied and debated by historians, scholars, and the public