12.3 Emotional processing and regulation

Emotions are complex processes involving neural, physiological, and behavioral components. From the amygdala's role in appraisal to the insula's involvement in subjective experience, various brain regions work together to generate and regulate our emotional responses.

Emotion regulation strategies like cognitive reappraisal and mindfulness engage the prefrontal cortex to modulate emotional reactions. These processes influence decision-making, social interactions, and overall well-being, highlighting the intricate relationship between emotions and cognition.

Emotional Processing

Neural correlates of emotional processing

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• Emotion generation involves evaluating the significance of a stimulus or event (appraisal) mediated by the amygdala and prefrontal cortex
• Physiological responses such as changes in heart rate, breathing, and hormonal levels are controlled by the hypothalamus and autonomic nervous system
• The conscious feeling of an emotion (subjective experience) involves the insula and anterior cingulate cortex
• Emotion expression includes communicating emotions through facial muscles (facial expressions) controlled by the motor cortex and brainstem
• Changes in tone, pitch, and volume of voice (vocal expressions) are mediated by the periaqueductal gray and motor cortex
• Posture, gestures, and movements conveying emotional states (body language) involve the motor cortex and basal ganglia

Attention and memory in emotions

• Selective attention focuses on emotionally salient stimuli mediated by the amygdala and prefrontal cortex
• Attentional bias is the tendency to prioritize threatening or rewarding stimuli and involves the amygdala and ventral striatum
• Primary appraisal evaluates the relevance and significance of a stimulus mediated by the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex
• Secondary appraisal assesses one's ability to cope with the situation and involves the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex
• Emotional memory enhancement improves encoding and retrieval of emotionally charged events mediated by the amygdala and hippocampus
• Autobiographical memory involves personal experiences with emotional significance and engages the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and default mode network

Emotion Regulation

Strategies for emotion regulation

• Cognitive reappraisal reinterprets the meaning of an emotional stimulus mediated by the prefrontal cortex and amygdala and is associated with reduced negative affect and improved well-being
• Expressive suppression inhibits the outward expression of emotions, involves the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, and may lead to increased physiological arousal and reduced positive affect
• Mindfulness promotes non-judgmental awareness and acceptance of present experiences, engages the prefrontal cortex, insula, and default mode network, and is linked to reduced emotional reactivity and improved emotion regulation
• Social support involves seeking comfort and assistance from others during emotional challenges, engages the oxytocin system and social cognition networks, and is associated with reduced stress and enhanced emotional well-being

Emotions in decision-making and interactions

• The somatic marker hypothesis suggests emotions guide decision-making through bodily feedback mediated by the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and insula
• Emotional biases are the tendency to make decisions based on current emotional states and involve the amygdala and nucleus accumbens
• Emotional flexibility adapts emotional responses to facilitate problem-solving and engages the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex
• Positive emotions can broaden thinking and promote creative solutions (creativity) involving the prefrontal cortex and default mode network
• Emotional contagion is the automatic mimicry and synchronization of emotional expressions mediated by the mirror neuron system and insula
• Empathy is understanding and sharing the emotional states of others and engages the anterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex, and temporoparietal junction
• Emotion recognition accurately identifies emotions in facial expressions and body language and involves the amygdala, fusiform face area, and superior temporal sulcus