3.3 Memory systems: encoding, storage, and retrieval

Memory is a complex cognitive process involving encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. These stages work together to form our ability to remember experiences, facts, and skills. Understanding how memory works can help us improve our learning and retention strategies.

Different memory systems handle information in unique ways. Sensory memory briefly holds sensory input, while short-term memory actively processes limited information. Long-term memory stores vast amounts of information for extended periods, relying on effective encoding and retrieval strategies to access stored knowledge.

Memory Stages and Systems

Stages of memory process

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• Encoding converts sensory information into a storable form in memory by directing attention to stimuli (sights, sounds), perceiving their features, and interpreting their meaning
• Storage maintains encoded information over time in sensory memory (< 1 sec), short-term memory (15-30 sec), or long-term memory (potentially permanent)
• Retrieval accesses stored information from memory through recall (remembering without cues), recognition (identifying previously encountered info), and relearning (learning faster than the first time)

Types of memory systems

• Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information for less than a second with a large capacity but short duration (iconic memory for visual, echoic memory for auditory)
• Short-term memory, also known as working memory, holds a limited amount of information (7 ± 2 items) for a brief duration (15-30 seconds without rehearsal) and actively manipulates and processes it
• Long-term memory has a virtually unlimited capacity and long duration (potentially permanent) but requires encoding and consolidation to store information

Encoding Strategies and Retrieval Processes

Encoding strategies for retention

• Elaborative rehearsal associates new information with existing knowledge by creating meaningful connections and contexts, which is more effective than simple maintenance rehearsal for long-term retention
• Mnemonic devices aid in encoding and retrieval using techniques like acronyms (ROY G. BIV for rainbow colors), acrostics (Every Good Boy Does Fine for musical notes), method of loci (mental journey), and pegword method (rhyming associations) to remember specific information or sequences
• Semantic encoding focuses on the meaning and significance of information by organizing it into categories or hierarchies, promoting deeper processing and better retention than shallow encoding (surface features)
• Visual imagery creates mental images or visualizations of information, combining verbal and visual codes for enhanced memory, which is particularly effective for concrete and easily visualized information (objects, faces)

Memory retrieval processes

1. Recall retrieves information from memory without external cues, requiring more cognitive effort than recognition (free recall of a list, cued recall with hints)
2. Recognition identifies previously encountered information when presented with it, which is less cognitively demanding than recall (multiple-choice tests, face recognition)
3. Relearning involves learning previously acquired information more quickly than new information, demonstrating the existence of residual memory traces, and can be measured using a savings score (efficiency compared to original learning)

Factors in forgetting and distortion

• Decay theory proposes that memory traces fade over time without rehearsal or use, primarily affecting short-term memory
• Interference theory suggests that prior learning interferes with new learning (proactive interference) or new learning interferes with the retrieval of prior learning (retroactive interference)
• Retrieval failure occurs when stored information cannot be accessed due to a lack of appropriate cues, meaning the information is available but not accessible
• Memory distortions include false memories (remembering events that did not occur or differently from reality), source misattribution (confusing the source of a memory), and suggestibility (incorporating misleading post-event information)
• Motivated forgetting involves the unconscious blocking of traumatic or emotionally painful memories (repression) or the conscious effort to avoid thinking about unpleasant memories (suppression)