14.1 Formation and distribution of fossil fuels

Fossil fuels power our world, but their formation takes millions of years. Coal comes from ancient plants, while oil and gas form from marine organisms. These fuels undergo complex processes, transforming organic matter into energy-rich substances we use today.

The global distribution of fossil fuels shapes our energy landscape and international relations. As we approach peak oil, the need for alternative energy sources grows. This reality highlights the importance of understanding fossil fuels' origins, types, and global impact.

Formation and Characteristics of Fossil Fuels

Formation of fossil fuels

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• Coal forms from accumulation of plant material in swamps or peat bogs (ferns, mosses, trees) that is buried under sediments and compressed and heated over millions of years
• Coal undergoes a process called coalification where peat transforms into lignite, then subbituminous coal, bituminous coal, and finally anthracite as it is subjected to increasing pressure and temperature
• Oil and natural gas form from accumulation of organic matter (plankton, algae) in marine environments that is buried under sediments
• Organic matter is converted into kerogen, which breaks down into oil and gas under high pressure and temperature through a process called catagenesis
• Oil and gas migrate into porous and permeable reservoir rocks (sandstone, limestone) and are trapped by impermeable cap rocks (shale, dense limestone)

Types and characteristics of coal

• Peat is partially decomposed plant material with high moisture content, low carbon content, and low energy value
• Lignite is a low-grade coal that is brown in color, has higher carbon content than peat but still high moisture content, and is used primarily in electricity generation
• Subbituminous coal has higher energy content than lignite, lower moisture content, higher carbon content, and is used in electricity generation and industrial applications (cement production)
• Bituminous coal is the most common type of coal with high energy content, lower moisture content, and is used in electricity generation, steel production, and other industrial processes (chemical manufacturing)
• Anthracite is the highest grade of coal that is hard and shiny, has the highest carbon content and lowest moisture content, but limited reserves, and is used primarily in residential and industrial applications (home heating, smelting)

Global Distribution and Future of Fossil Fuels

Peak oil concept and implications

• Peak oil refers to the point at which the maximum rate of global oil production is reached, after which production declines due to depletion of reserves and increasing extraction costs
• Implications of peak oil include increasing oil prices as supply becomes constrained, need for alternative energy sources to replace declining oil production (renewable energy, nuclear power), and potential economic and social impacts of reduced oil availability (recession, job losses)
• Energy efficiency and conservation measures become increasingly important to mitigate the impacts of peak oil (fuel-efficient vehicles, energy-efficient buildings)

Global distribution of fossil fuels

• Coal reserves are widely distributed across multiple continents, with the largest reserves in the United States, Russia, China, Australia, and India
• Oil reserves are concentrated in the Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, UAE), with other significant reserves in Venezuela, Canada (oil sands), Russia, and the United States
• Natural gas reserves are largest in Russia, Iran, Qatar, Turkmenistan, and the United States, with significant reserves also in Saudi Arabia, UAE, Venezuela, and Nigeria
• Uneven distribution of fossil fuel reserves can lead to concentration of oil reserves in politically unstable regions (Middle East), potential for resource nationalism and geopolitical conflicts (wars, embargoes), and importance of energy security and diversification of energy sources (renewable energy, nuclear power)