10.2 Hindu architecture and temple design

Hindu temples are architectural marvels that symbolize cosmic and spiritual concepts. These sacred structures represent Mount Meru, the mythical abode of gods, with their vertical spires (shikharas) reaching skyward. The inner sanctum (garbhagriha) houses the main deity, while mandapas serve as gathering spaces.

Temple design varies across India, with distinct regional styles like Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south. Each style has unique features, from curvilinear towers to pyramidal structures. Temples also incorporate intricate carvings, symbolic layouts, and water bodies, creating a comprehensive sacred space that reflects Hindu cosmology and mythology.

Hindu Temple Architecture

Symbolic Representation and Sacred Spaces

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• Hindu temples are designed as symbolic representations of the cosmic mountain Meru, the abode of the gods, with the vertical spire (shikhara) representing the ascending peaks
• The garbhagriha, or sanctum sanctorum, houses the primary idol or murti of the presiding deity and is considered the most sacred space within the temple
• Mandapas are pillared halls within the temple complex, often preceding the garbhagriha, and serve various functions such as congregational worship, ritual dance, or marriage ceremonies
• The entrance to the temple is marked by a gateway tower called a gopuram, which is often ornately decorated with sculptures of deities, mythical creatures, and other religious motifs
• Temples often feature circumambulatory paths (pradakshina) around the garbhagriha, allowing devotees to perform a clockwise circumambulation as a form of worship and respect

Anthropomorphic Symbolism in Temple Structure

• Symbolically, the various parts of the temple represent different aspects of the human body, with the garbhagriha representing the heart, the mandapas as the limbs, and the gopuram as the feet
• This anthropomorphic symbolism reflects the belief that the divine resides within the human body and that the temple serves as a metaphor for the spiritual journey towards self-realization
• The vertical ascent of the temple, from the base to the shikhara, represents the spiritual journey from the earthly realm to the divine, mirroring the cosmic hierarchy
• The garbhagriha, as the heart of the temple, symbolizes the cosmic center where the divine resides, akin to Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology

Regional Styles of Hindu Temples

North Indian Nagara Style

• The Nagara style, prevalent in North India, is characterized by a curvilinear shikhara topped with an amalaka (ribbed stone disc) and a kalasha (finial)
  • Notable examples of Nagara style include the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho and the Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar
  • The Nagara style often features elaborate ornamentation, including intricate carvings of deities, celestial beings, and floral motifs on the temple exterior
  • The shikhara in Nagara temples is often divided into multiple tiers or levels, each adorned with miniature shikharas or subsidiary shrines

South Indian Dravida Style

• The Dravida style, found in South India, features a pyramidal, stepped tower called a vimana over the garbhagriha and often includes multiple subsidiary shrines
  • The Brihadishvara Temple in Thanjavur and the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai are prime examples of Dravida style architecture
  • Dravida temples are known for their massive gopurams, or gateway towers, which are often taller than the main temple itself and feature intricate sculptures and carvings
  • The vimana in Dravida temples is typically composed of multiple tiers, each with its own set of ornate carvings and sculptures

Hybrid Vesara Style and Eastern Kalinga Style

• The Vesara style, seen in the Deccan region, is a hybrid of Nagara and Dravida styles, incorporating elements from both traditions
  • The Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu and the Chennakesava Temple in Belur showcase the Vesara style
  • Vesara temples often feature a combination of the curvilinear shikhara of the Nagara style and the pyramidal vimana of the Dravida style
• The Kalinga style, found in the eastern state of Odisha, is known for its elaborate and intricately carved exteriors, often featuring sculptures of deities, dancers, and musicians
  • The Sun Temple at Konark and the Jagannath Temple in Puri are notable examples of Kalinga style architecture
  • Kalinga temples are characterized by their unique rekha deul (curvilinear tower) and pidha deul (pyramidal tower) over the garbhagriha, as well as their intricately carved walls and ceilings

Sections of a Hindu Temple Complex

Garbhagriha and Mandapas

• The garbhagriha is the most sacred space housing the primary deity, and entry is often restricted to priests performing daily rituals and offerings
• Mandapas serve various purposes, such as the natya mandapa for ritual dance performances, the kalyana mandapa for marriage ceremonies, and the maha mandapa for congregational worship
  • The natya mandapa is often a square or rectangular hall with a flat roof supported by pillars, providing a space for classical dance performances as a form of devotion
  • The kalyana mandapa is typically a larger hall used for wedding ceremonies, with elaborate decorations and a central raised platform for the bride and groom
  • The maha mandapa is the main congregational hall where devotees gather for worship, offerings, and religious discourses

Transitional Spaces and Circumambulation

• The antarala, or vestibule, is a transitional space between the garbhagriha and the mandapa, often housing subsidiary deities or serving as a space for devotees to offer prayers
• The pradakshina path allows devotees to circumambulate the garbhagriha, a practice believed to accrue spiritual merit and demonstrate reverence for the deity
  • The pradakshina path is usually a covered walkway encircling the garbhagriha, with devotees moving in a clockwise direction
  • In some temples, the pradakshina path may include multiple levels or tiers, with each level representing a different stage of spiritual progression

Subsidiary Shrines and Water Bodies

• Shrines dedicated to subsidiary deities, such as the vahana (vehicle) of the main deity or other associated gods and goddesses, are often located within the temple complex
  • For example, in a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, there may be subsidiary shrines for Nandi (Shiva's bull vahana), Parvati (Shiva's consort), and Ganesha (Shiva's son)
  • These subsidiary shrines help to create a comprehensive sacred space that encompasses the various aspects and associations of the main deity
• Water bodies, such as tanks or stepwells, are integral to temple complexes, serving both practical purposes for ritual ablutions and symbolic significance related to cosmological beliefs
  • Temple tanks, known as pushkarinis, are often rectangular or square-shaped and are used for ritual bathing and purification before entering the temple
  • Stepwells, or baolis, are elaborate subterranean structures with multiple levels of stairs leading down to the water source, often adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures

Cosmology and Temple Design

Mythological Narratives and Iconography

• Sculptures and iconography on temple walls often depict scenes from Hindu mythological texts, such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas, serving as visual narratives for devotees
  • For example, the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh features sculpted panels depicting the ten avatars of Lord Vishnu
  • These sculptural narratives help to educate devotees about the various mythological stories and reinforce the teachings and values embedded within them
  • The placement of these sculptures and iconography is often carefully planned to guide the devotee's spiritual journey and progressively reveal deeper layers of meaning

Orientation, Alignment, and Sacred Geometry

• The orientation and alignment of temples often hold cosmological significance, with the main entrance facing a specific cardinal direction or the rising sun
  • For example, many temples dedicated to Lord Shiva are oriented towards the east, symbolizing the rising sun and the illumination of knowledge
  • Some temples may also be aligned with specific astronomical events, such as the equinoxes or solstices, highlighting the connection between the cosmic cycles and the temple's sacred space
• Numerical symbolism, such as the 64 yogini temples or the 108 dance poses of Shiva, is incorporated into temple design, reflecting sacred numbers in Hindu cosmology
  • The number 64 is associated with the cosmic order and the manifestation of divine power, while 108 is considered a sacred number representing spiritual completion and the unity of the divine, human, and cosmic realms
• The mandala, a geometric pattern representing the cosmos, often serves as the basis for temple floor plans and the arrangement of subsidiary shrines within the complex
  • The mandala is typically a square divided into smaller squares or concentric circles, with each section representing a specific aspect of the cosmos or a particular deity
  • The use of the mandala in temple design reflects the belief that the temple is a microcosm of the universe, with the various deities and sacred spaces arranged in a harmonious and symmetrical pattern