1.3 Ancient Greek civilization

Ancient Greece, a cornerstone of Western civilization, shaped philosophy, democracy, art, and literature. Its influence continues to resonate in modern society, from political systems to cultural expressions.

The Greek world spanned from the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations through the Classical period to the Hellenistic era. It saw the rise of city-states, the development of diverse political systems, and the flourishing of intellectual and artistic achievements.

Origins of Ancient Greece

• Ancient Greek civilization laid the foundation for many aspects of Western culture and thought
• Study of Ancient Greece provides insights into the development of philosophy, democracy, art, and literature that continue to shape modern society

Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations

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• Minoan civilization flourished on Crete from 3000-1100 BCE
  • Known for elaborate palaces (Knossos) and sophisticated art
  • Developed Linear A script, still undeciphered
• Mycenaean civilization dominated mainland Greece from 1600-1100 BCE
  • Built fortified citadels (Mycenae, Tiryns)
  • Used Linear B script, an early form of Greek
• Both civilizations engaged in extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean

Greek Dark Ages

• Period from 1100-800 BCE marked by decline in population and material culture
• Collapse of Mycenaean civilization led to loss of writing and centralized authority
• Shift to iron tools and weapons revolutionized agriculture and warfare
• Oral traditions preserved cultural memory, later recorded in Homeric epics (Iliad, Odyssey)

Archaic period

• Lasted from 800-480 BCE, characterized by significant cultural and political developments
• Emergence of the polis (city-state) as the primary political unit
• Colonization movement expanded Greek influence across the Mediterranean and Black Sea
• Development of Greek alphabet, adapted from Phoenician script
• Rise of tyrants, charismatic leaders who seized power in many city-states

Greek city-states

• City-states formed the core of Ancient Greek political and social organization
• Polis system fostered competition and innovation between independent communities

Athens vs Sparta

• Athens
  • Developed direct democracy, allowing citizens to participate in government
  • Emphasized intellectual and artistic pursuits
  • Built powerful navy and led Delian League
• Sparta
  • Oligarchic government ruled by two kings and council of elders
  • Focused on military training and discipline
  • Maintained powerful land army and led Peloponnesian League
• Rivalry between Athens and Sparta culminated in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE)

Political systems

• Varied forms of government developed across Greek city-states
• Monarchy ruled by a single hereditary ruler
• Oligarchy governed by a small group of wealthy or aristocratic citizens
• Democracy allowed citizens to participate directly in decision-making
• Tyranny temporary rule by an individual who seized power, often with popular support

Social structure

• Citizenship limited to free adult males born to citizen parents
• Women had limited rights and were generally confined to domestic roles
• Slaves formed a significant portion of the population, performing various tasks
• Metics (resident foreigners) engaged in trade and crafts but lacked political rights
• Social mobility limited, with wealth and birth determining status

Classical Greek culture

• Classical period (480-323 BCE) marked the height of Greek cultural achievements
• Greek culture profoundly influenced Western art, literature, and thought

Greek mythology and religion

• Polytheistic religion with a pantheon of gods and goddesses
• Twelve Olympian gods ruled from Mount Olympus (Zeus, Hera, Poseidon)
• Myths explained natural phenomena and human behavior
• Religious festivals and rituals (Eleusinian Mysteries, Dionysian festivals) played a central role in social life
• Oracles, especially the Oracle of Delphi, provided divine guidance and prophecies

Art and architecture

• Greek art emphasized idealized human forms and balanced proportions
• Sculpture evolved from rigid kouros figures to naturalistic statues (Myron's Discobolus)
• Architecture developed distinct orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian)
• Parthenon exemplifies Greek temple architecture, dedicated to Athena
• Pottery styles (black-figure, red-figure) depicted mythological scenes and daily life

Literature and drama

• Epic poetry of Homer (Iliad, Odyssey) preserved oral traditions and heroic ideals
• Lyric poetry explored personal emotions and experiences (Sappho, Pindar)
• Tragedy developed from religious festivals honoring Dionysus
• Three great tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides explored human nature and fate
• Comedy, represented by Aristophanes, satirized contemporary society and politics

Philosophy and science

• Greek thinkers laid the foundations for Western philosophy and scientific inquiry
• Rational approach to understanding the world challenged traditional mythological explanations

Pre-Socratic philosophers

• Thales of Miletus proposed water as the fundamental substance of the universe
• Pythagoras explored mathematical relationships and founded a mystical school
• Heraclitus argued that change was the fundamental nature of reality
• Democritus developed atomic theory, proposing indivisible particles as building blocks of matter
• Parmenides questioned the reality of change and motion, influencing later philosophers

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

• Socrates (470-399 BCE) emphasized ethical inquiry and the importance of questioning assumptions
  • Developed Socratic method of questioning to expose contradictions in beliefs
• Plato (428-348 BCE) founded the Academy and wrote influential dialogues
  • Theory of Forms proposed ideal, abstract forms as the true nature of reality
  • "The Republic" explored justice and the ideal state
• Aristotle (384-322 BCE) studied under Plato and founded the Lyceum
  • Developed systematic approach to logic, ethics, politics, and natural sciences
  • Writings on politics and ethics continue to influence modern thought

Scientific advancements

• Hippocrates established medicine as a rational discipline, separate from religious healing
• Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy
• Archimedes made significant contributions to mathematics and physics (principle of buoyancy)
• Ptolemy developed a geocentric model of the universe that persisted for centuries
• Greek astronomers identified five planets and developed methods to predict their movements

Greek warfare

• Warfare played a significant role in shaping Greek history and culture
• Hoplite warfare revolutionized military tactics and emphasized citizen-soldiers

Persian Wars

• Conflict between Greek city-states and Persian Empire (499-449 BCE)
• Ionian Revolt (499-493 BCE) sparked Persian invasions of mainland Greece
• Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) Athenians defeated larger Persian force
• Xerxes' invasion (480-479 BCE) united Greek city-states against common threat
• Greek victories at Salamis and Plataea ended Persian threat to mainland Greece
• Delian League formed to continue war against Persia, led to Athenian empire

Peloponnesian War

• Conflict between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies (431-404 BCE)
• Caused by growing Athenian power and Spartan fear of Athenian imperialism
• Divided into three phases Archidamian War, Peace of Nicias, and Decelean War
• Athenian plague and disastrous Sicilian Expedition weakened Athens
• Sparta, with Persian support, eventually defeated Athens in 404 BCE
• War devastated Greek world and ended Athenian golden age

Rise of Macedonia

• Philip II of Macedon (359-336 BCE) transformed Macedonia into major power
• Introduced military innovations, including the sarissa (long pike) and improved cavalry
• Defeated Greek city-states at Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE)
• Established League of Corinth, uniting Greek states under Macedonian leadership
• Assassination in 336 BCE led to succession of his son, Alexander the Great

Hellenistic period

• Era following Alexander's conquests (323-31 BCE) marked by spread of Greek culture
• Blending of Greek and Near Eastern cultures created new Hellenistic civilization

Alexander the Great

• Conquered Persian Empire in series of campaigns (334-323 BCE)
• Defeated Darius III at battles of Issus and Gaugamela
• Pushed eastward to India, reaching the Indus River
• Founded numerous cities, including Alexandria in Egypt
• Died in Babylon in 323 BCE, leading to fragmentation of his empire

Spread of Greek culture

• Koine Greek became lingua franca across Alexander's former empire
• Greek art and architecture influenced local styles (Gandhara art in India)
• Greek philosophy and science spread to new regions
• Establishment of great centers of learning (Library of Alexandria)
• Cultural exchange led to new religious and philosophical movements (Stoicism, Epicureanism)

Hellenistic kingdoms

• Alexander's empire divided among his generals after his death
• Ptolemaic Egypt ruled by descendants of Ptolemy I Soter
• Seleucid Empire controlled much of Near East and Central Asia
• Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia and parts of Greece
• Kingdoms engaged in constant warfare and diplomatic maneuvering
• Gradual decline of Hellenistic states led to Roman conquest of Greek world

Legacy of Ancient Greece

• Ancient Greek civilization continues to exert profound influence on Western culture
• Study of Greek achievements provides insights into foundations of modern society

Influence on Western civilization

• Greek philosophy shaped Western intellectual traditions
• Scientific method rooted in Greek rational inquiry
• Greek concepts of citizenship and civic participation inform modern political thought
• Greek art and architecture continue to inspire artists and designers
• Greek mythology remains a rich source for literature, art, and popular culture

Greek contributions to democracy

• Athenian democracy provided model for participatory government
• Concepts of citizenship and civic duty developed in Greek poleis
• Public debate and rhetoric emphasized in Greek political life
• Separation of powers and checks on authority explored in Greek political theory
• Criticisms of democracy by Greek philosophers continue to inform political discourse

Impact on art and literature

• Greek aesthetic principles of balance, proportion, and harmony influenced Western art
• Literary genres (epic, lyric, drama) established by Greek writers
• Greek myths and legends continue to inspire literature, film, and other media
• Revival of Greek ideals during Renaissance shaped European art and architecture
• Greek concepts of tragedy and comedy influence modern storytelling and entertainment