1.2 Sociolinguistic variables

Sociolinguistic variables are key to understanding how language varies across social groups and contexts. These linguistic features can occur at different levels, from pronunciation to sentence structure.

Studying these variables helps researchers uncover how social factors influence language use. By examining phonological, lexical, morphological, syntactic, and discourse-level variables, we gain insight into the complex relationship between language and society.

Types of sociolinguistic variables

• Sociolinguistic variables are linguistic features that exhibit variation across different social groups or contexts
• Variables can occur at various levels of language structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and discourse
• Analyzing sociolinguistic variables helps researchers understand how language use is influenced by social factors and how it varies within speech communities

Phonological vs lexical variables

Top images from around the web for Phonological vs lexical variables

• 

  Frontiers | Interaction in Spoken Word Recognition Models: Feedback Helps View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | A Principled Relation between Reading and Naming in Acquired and Developmental ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Introduction to Language | Boundless Psychology View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | Interaction in Spoken Word Recognition Models: Feedback Helps View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | A Principled Relation between Reading and Naming in Acquired and Developmental ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Phonological vs lexical variables

• 

  Frontiers | Interaction in Spoken Word Recognition Models: Feedback Helps View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | A Principled Relation between Reading and Naming in Acquired and Developmental ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Introduction to Language | Boundless Psychology View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | Interaction in Spoken Word Recognition Models: Feedback Helps View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | A Principled Relation between Reading and Naming in Acquired and Developmental ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Phonological variables involve variation in the pronunciation of particular sounds or sound sequences (e.g., the presence or absence of /r/ in words like "car" or "farm")
• Lexical variables refer to the choice between different words or expressions that have similar meanings (e.g., using "soda" vs "pop" to refer to a carbonated beverage)
• Phonological variables are often more systematic and constrained by linguistic factors, while lexical variables may be more influenced by social and cultural factors
• Examples:
  • The use of "ain't" as a negator in some English dialects is a lexical variable
  • The pronunciation of "ing" as [ɪn] or [ɪŋ] in words like "running" or "singing" is a phonological variable

Morphological vs syntactic variables

• Morphological variables involve variation in the form of words, such as the use of different affixes or inflections (e.g., the use of "s" vs "es" for plural nouns)
• Syntactic variables refer to variation in the structure of sentences or phrases (e.g., the use of double negatives in some English dialects)
• Morphological variables are often tied to grammatical categories and rules, while syntactic variables may be more influenced by discourse and pragmatic factors
• Examples:
  • The use of "you all" or "y'all" as a second-person plural pronoun in some English dialects is a morphological variable
  • The use of "be like" as a quotative verb in some English dialects is a syntactic variable

Discourse-level variables

• Discourse-level variables involve variation in the organization and structure of larger units of language, such as conversations, narratives, or texts
• These variables may include features such as turn-taking patterns, topic management, or the use of discourse markers (e.g., "like," "you know," or "I mean")
• Discourse-level variables are often influenced by social and interactional factors, such as power dynamics, politeness strategies, or cultural norms
• Examples:
  • The use of "uptalk" or rising intonation at the end of declarative sentences in some English dialects is a discourse-level variable
  • The use of "high-involvement" vs "high-considerateness" styles in conversation, which differ in terms of interruptions, overlaps, and turn-taking patterns, is another example of a discourse-level variable

Social factors influencing variation

• Language variation is not random but is systematically influenced by various social factors that shape the way individuals and groups use language
• Social factors can interact with each other and with linguistic factors to produce complex patterns of variation and change
• Studying the relationship between social factors and linguistic variation helps sociolinguists understand how language reflects and constructs social identities, relationships, and structures

Age and generational differences

• Different age groups and generations may use language differently, reflecting changes in linguistic norms, social values, and cultural practices over time
• Age-graded variation refers to linguistic features that are associated with particular life stages and that individuals may adopt or abandon as they move through different stages
• Generational differences in language use can also reflect historical changes in society, such as shifts in education, technology, or social attitudes
• Examples:
  • The use of slang and innovative forms is often associated with younger speakers, while older speakers may use more conservative or standard forms
  • The use of "groovy" or "far out" as slang terms was associated with the youth culture of the 1960s and 1970s but has largely fallen out of use among younger generations

Gender and linguistic variation

• Gender is a social construct that can influence language use in various ways, reflecting differences in socialization, power, and identity
• Men and women may use different linguistic forms or styles, which can be related to gendered norms, roles, and expectations in a given society
• Gender differences in language use can also intersect with other social factors, such as age, class, or ethnicity, creating complex patterns of variation
• Examples:
  • In some societies, women may use more standard or prestige forms than men, reflecting their greater orientation towards social mobility and linguistic capital
  • The use of tag questions (e.g., "isn't it?" or "right?") is sometimes associated with women's speech, although this stereotype has been challenged by more recent research

Social class and socioeconomic status

• Social class and socioeconomic status can influence language use, reflecting differences in education, occupation, income, and social networks
• Speakers from higher social classes may use more standard or prestige forms, while speakers from lower classes may use more non-standard or vernacular forms
• Class-based variation can also intersect with other social factors, such as race or ethnicity, creating complex patterns of linguistic stratification
• Examples:
  • The use of "ain't" as a negator is often associated with working-class or less educated speakers in some English dialects
  • The use of "whom" in object position is often associated with more formal or educated speech, while the use of "who" in the same position is more common in colloquial or informal speech

Ethnicity and language use

• Ethnicity can influence language use, reflecting differences in cultural heritage, identity, and social networks
• Ethnic groups may use distinct linguistic varieties or styles, which can serve as markers of group identity and solidarity
• Ethnic variation in language use can also intersect with other social factors, such as class or region, creating complex patterns of linguistic diversity
• Examples:
  • African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a distinct variety of English spoken by many African Americans in the United States, with its own grammatical and phonological features
  • The use of code-switching or mixing between different languages or dialects is common among many bilingual or multilingual ethnic communities, such as Latinx or Asian American communities

Geographic region and dialect variation

• Language varies across different geographic regions, reflecting historical, cultural, and social factors that have shaped the development of regional dialects
• Regional variation can occur at various levels of language structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon
• Regional dialects can also be associated with particular social identities, attitudes, and stereotypes, which can influence how speakers perceive and use them
• Examples:
  • The use of "y'all" as a second-person plural pronoun is associated with Southern American English, while "youse" is associated with some Northern American dialects
  • The pronunciation of "car" with a fronted vowel is associated with some Northern English dialects in the UK, while a backed vowel is more common in Southern English dialects

Linguistic constraints on variation

• Linguistic constraints refer to the ways in which the structure and properties of language itself can influence the distribution and use of sociolinguistic variables
• These constraints operate at various levels of language, from the phonological and grammatical to the lexical and discourse levels
• Linguistic constraints can interact with social factors to shape the patterns of variation and change observed in language use

Phonological environment

• The phonological environment refers to the sounds or sound sequences that occur before or after a particular linguistic variable
• The realization of a variable may be influenced by the preceding or following sounds, such as vowels, consonants, or syllable structure
• Phonological constraints can be described in terms of natural classes of sounds or features, such as place or manner of articulation
• Examples:
  • The deletion of word-final /t/ or /d/ in English (e.g., "west side" pronounced as "wes side") is more likely to occur when the following word begins with a consonant than with a vowel
  • The pronunciation of /r/ in New York City English is more likely to be a central vowel (e.g., "bird" pronounced as "boid") when it occurs before a consonant than before a pause or vowel

Grammatical category

• The grammatical category of a word or morpheme can influence the realization of a linguistic variable
• Variables may be more or less likely to occur in certain parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, or adjectives, or in certain grammatical contexts, such as subject or object position
• Grammatical constraints can reflect the underlying structure and rules of the language system, as well as the functional or communicative properties of different categories
• Examples:
  • The use of "who" vs "whom" in English is influenced by the grammatical function of the pronoun, with "whom" being more likely to occur in object position than in subject position
  • The use of "s" vs "es" for plural nouns in English is influenced by the phonological shape of the noun, with "es" being more likely to occur after sibilants (e.g., "buses" vs "cars")

Lexical frequency

• The frequency of a word or expression in a language can influence the realization of a linguistic variable
• High-frequency words or expressions may be more likely to undergo reduction, simplification, or other types of change than low-frequency words
• Lexical frequency effects can reflect the cognitive and articulatory pressures of language processing, as well as the social and cultural salience of different words or expressions
• Examples:
  • The pronunciation of "going to" as "gonna" in English is more likely to occur in high-frequency collocations (e.g., "I'm gonna go") than in low-frequency or novel combinations
  • The use of "like" as a discourse marker or hedge is more frequent in the speech of younger speakers than older speakers, reflecting its status as a innovative and socially salient form

Stylistic and register differences

• Language use can vary across different styles or registers, reflecting the formality, purpose, or audience of a communicative situation
• Speakers may use different linguistic forms or variables depending on whether they are in a formal or informal context, a written or spoken mode, or a public or private setting
• Stylistic and register differences can reflect the social norms, expectations, and identities associated with different communicative domains or genres
• Examples:
  • The use of standard or prestige forms is more likely to occur in formal or written contexts (e.g., academic writing or job interviews), while non-standard or vernacular forms are more common in informal or spoken contexts (e.g., casual conversation or social media)
  • The use of technical or specialized vocabulary is more frequent in professional or academic registers (e.g., medical or legal discourse), while everyday or colloquial vocabulary is more common in general or informal registers

Quantitative analysis of variables

• Quantitative analysis involves the use of statistical methods to measure and model the distribution and use of sociolinguistic variables in a given dataset or population
• Quantitative approaches allow researchers to identify patterns, test hypotheses, and generalize findings beyond individual cases or examples
• Quantitative analysis can be used to study the effects of social and linguistic factors on variation, as well as the relationships and interactions among different variables

Variable rules and constraints

• Variable rules are probabilistic statements that specify the likelihood of a particular variant occurring in a given linguistic or social context
• Variable rules can be expressed as mathematical equations or formulas that estimate the contribution of different factors to the overall probability of a variant
• Constraints on variation can be incorporated into variable rules as weighted factors or parameters that influence the application or non-application of a rule
• Examples:
  • A variable rule for the deletion of word-final /t/ or /d/ in English might specify that the probability of deletion is higher when the following word begins with a consonant (a favoring factor) than with a vowel (a disfavoring factor)
  • A variable rule for the use of "who" vs "whom" in English might specify that the probability of "whom" is higher in object position (a favoring factor) than in subject position (a disfavoring factor), and that this effect is stronger in formal or written contexts than in informal or spoken contexts

Multivariate analysis techniques

• Multivariate analysis techniques allow researchers to study the simultaneous effects of multiple independent variables on a dependent variable
• Common multivariate techniques used in sociolinguistics include logistic regression, factor analysis, and cluster analysis
• Multivariate analysis can help researchers identify the relative importance of different factors, as well as the interactions and correlations among them
• Examples:
  • A logistic regression analysis of the use of "ing" vs "in" in English progressive verbs might show that the probability of "in" is influenced by the speaker's age, gender, and social class, as well as by the grammatical and phonological context of the variable
  • A factor analysis of the use of different discourse markers in English conversation might reveal underlying dimensions or styles of use, such as "informational" vs "interactional" or "formal" vs "informal"

Statistical significance of factors

• Statistical significance refers to the likelihood that an observed effect or relationship is not due to chance or sampling error
• Significance tests, such as chi-square or t-tests, can be used to assess whether the differences between groups or variables are larger than would be expected by chance alone
• The level of significance is usually set at a threshold of p < .05, meaning that there is less than a 5% probability that the observed effect is due to chance
• Examples:
  • A chi-square test of the use of "you all" vs "y'all" in Southern American English might show that the difference between male and female speakers is statistically significant at p < .01, indicating that gender is a reliable predictor of the variable
  • A t-test of the vowel formants of /æ/ in different ethnic groups in a city might show that the differences between groups are not statistically significant at p > .05, indicating that ethnicity is not a strong factor in the realization of this vowel

Limitations of quantitative approaches

• Quantitative approaches to sociolinguistic variation have some limitations and challenges that researchers need to be aware of
• Quantitative analysis can oversimplify or decontextualize the complexity and nuance of language use, ignoring the situated and interactional nature of variation
• Quantitative models can also be biased or skewed by the sampling, coding, and measurement decisions made by researchers, as well as by the assumptions and categories underlying the analysis
• Examples:
  • A quantitative analysis of the use of "like" as a discourse marker in English might fail to capture the different functions, meanings, and contexts of use that are evident in qualitative or interactional data
  • A multivariate analysis of the effects of social class on language use might be limited by the way that class is operationalized and measured, such as by using education or income as proxy variables

Qualitative analysis of variables

• Qualitative analysis involves the use of interpretive and descriptive methods to study the meanings, functions, and contexts of sociolinguistic variables in naturalistic or ethnographic data
• Qualitative approaches allow researchers to explore the situated and emergent nature of variation, as well as the subjective and cultural dimensions of language use
• Qualitative analysis can be used to complement or challenge quantitative findings, as well as to generate new hypotheses or insights about the social and linguistic dynamics of variation

Ethnographic methods

• Ethnographic methods involve the use of participant observation, interviews, and other forms of fieldwork to study language use in its natural and cultural context
• Ethnographers seek to understand the local meanings, norms, and practices that shape language use in a particular community or setting
• Ethnographic data can provide rich and detailed accounts of how linguistic variables are used and perceived by speakers, as well as how they relate to other aspects of social life and identity
• Examples:
  • An ethnographic study of the use of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) in a urban high school might reveal how students use AAVE to construct and negotiate their identities as black youth, as well as how they navigate the tensions between AAVE and standard English in the classroom
  • An ethnographic study of the use of Spanish and English in a bilingual community might show how code-switching and mixing serve as resources for expressing cultural identity, solidarity, and creativity, as well as how they are shaped by the power dynamics and ideologies of the larger society

Interactional sociolinguistics

• Interactional sociolinguistics is a qualitative approach that focuses on the ways in which linguistic variables are used and negotiated in face-to-face interaction and conversation
• Interactional sociolinguists analyze the sequential and contextual features of talk, such as turn-taking, overlap, repair, and prosody, as well as the social and cultural meanings that speakers create and interpret through their language use
• Interactional data can provide insights into the moment-by-moment construction and management of social identities, relationships, and activities through the use of linguistic variables
• Examples:
  • An interactional analysis of the use of "uptalk" or rising intonation in English conversation might show how speakers use uptalk to seek confirmation, express uncertainty, or mitigate face threats, as well as how uptalk is perceived and responded to by other participants in the interaction
  • An interactional analysis of the use of honorifics and address terms in Korean conversation might reveal how speakers use these variables to index and negotiate their relative status, age, and familiarity, as well as how they navigate the cultural norms and expectations of politeness and hierarchy

Discourse analysis of variation

• Discourse analysis is a qualitative approach that examines the ways in which linguistic variables are used and patterned in larger units of language, such as narratives, arguments, or texts
• Discourse analysts study the rhetorical, pragmatic, and semiotic functions of variables, as well as their relationship to the structure and coherence of discourse
• Discourse data can provide insights into the ways in which linguistic variables are used to construct and convey meaning, stance, and genre, as well as how they reflect and shape the social and cultural context of language use

• Examples: