2.2 Regional and social variation

Regional and social variation in language reflects how speech patterns differ across geographic areas and social groups. This variation is a key aspect of sociolinguistics, helping us understand how language is shaped by both location and social factors.

Studying regional and social variation reveals how dialects form, how language changes over time, and how it's influenced by factors like class, age, gender, and ethnicity. This knowledge deepens our understanding of language's role in society and human interaction.

Regional vs social variation

• Regional variation in language refers to differences in speech patterns, vocabulary, and pronunciation across geographic areas, while social variation encompasses linguistic differences based on factors such as social class, age, gender, and ethnicity
• The study of regional and social variation is a key aspect of sociolinguistics, as it helps to understand how language is shaped by both geographic and social factors
• Regional and social variation are not always distinct categories, as regional dialects may be associated with particular social groups or identities

Defining dialect regions

Isoglosses and dialect boundaries

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• Isoglosses are geographic boundaries that mark the limits of a particular linguistic feature, such as the pronunciation of a vowel or the use of a specific word
• Dialect boundaries are formed by the clustering of multiple isoglosses, indicating a transition between distinct dialect regions
• Isoglosses and dialect boundaries are not always clear-cut, as linguistic features may overlap or gradually change across geographic areas

Dialect continua and gradual transitions

• Dialect continua are areas where linguistic features gradually change from one region to another, without sharp boundaries between dialects
• Gradual transitions between dialects can occur due to factors such as population movement, language contact, and the influence of neighboring dialects
• Examples of dialect continua include the West Germanic continuum (spanning from the Netherlands to Austria) and the Arabic dialect continuum (extending from Morocco to Iraq)

Social class and language variation

Prestige varieties and standard language

• Prestige varieties are language forms associated with high social status, education, and formal contexts
• Standard language is the codified, socially accepted form of a language, often based on the speech of the upper or middle classes
• The use of prestige varieties and standard language can serve as a marker of social class and education

Vernacular and non-standard varieties

• Vernacular varieties are the everyday, informal speech forms used within a particular community or social group
• Non-standard varieties are language forms that deviate from the socially accepted standard, often associated with lower social classes or marginalized groups
• The use of vernacular and non-standard varieties can express solidarity, identity, and group membership

Language and socioeconomic status

• Socioeconomic status, including factors such as income, education, and occupation, can influence language use and variation
• Lower socioeconomic groups may use more non-standard features, while higher socioeconomic groups tend to use more standard and prestige forms
• Language can serve as a marker of socioeconomic status and can impact social mobility and access to opportunities

Age-related variation

Age-graded features and life stages

• Age-graded features are linguistic variables that change over an individual's lifespan, often associated with different life stages (childhood, adolescence, adulthood, etc.)
• Examples of age-graded features include the use of slang, the acquisition of specialized vocabulary, and changes in pronunciation or grammar
• Age-graded features can reflect the social expectations and roles associated with different life stages

Apparent time vs real time studies

• Apparent time studies compare the speech of different age groups at a single point in time, using the differences to infer language change
• Real time studies follow the same individuals or community over an extended period to observe language change directly
• Combining apparent time and real time studies can provide a more comprehensive understanding of language change and age-related variation

Language change across generations

• Language change can occur across generations, as younger speakers adopt new features or abandon older forms
• Generational differences in language use can lead to the emergence of new dialects or the divergence of existing varieties
• Examples of language change across generations include the Great Vowel Shift in English and the increasing use of uptalk (rising intonation at the end of statements) among younger speakers

Gender and linguistic variation

Gender-preferential features and styles

• Gender-preferential features are linguistic variables that are more commonly used by one gender group, although not exclusively
• Examples of gender-preferential features include the use of certain adjectives, hedges (kind of, sort of), and tag questions (isn't it?)
• Gender-preferential styles may also involve differences in pitch, intonation, and conversational strategies

Gender roles and language socialization

• Language socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn to use language in socially appropriate ways, including gender-specific norms
• Traditional gender roles can influence language socialization, with children learning to use language in ways that conform to societal expectations of masculinity and femininity
• Changes in gender roles and societal norms can lead to shifts in gender-related language patterns

Language and gender identity

• Language can be used to express and construct gender identity, including non-binary and transgender identities
• Individuals may use language to challenge or subvert traditional gender norms, such as through the use of gender-neutral pronouns or the reclamation of gendered slurs
• The relationship between language and gender identity highlights the role of language in shaping and reflecting social identities

Ethnicity and linguistic diversity

Ethnic varieties and dialects

• Ethnic varieties are language forms associated with specific ethnic or cultural groups, often reflecting the group's history, identity, and social experiences
• Examples of ethnic varieties include African American Vernacular English (AAVE), Chicano English, and British Asian English
• Ethnic varieties may have distinct phonological, grammatical, and lexical features that set them apart from the majority language or dialect

Language contact and ethnolects

• Language contact occurs when speakers of different languages or dialects interact, leading to the exchange of linguistic features and the emergence of new varieties
• Ethnolects are varieties that emerge from language contact between an ethnic group and the majority language, often incorporating features from both languages
• Examples of ethnolects include Multicultural London English (MLE), which combines features from various immigrant languages and British English

Language and ethnic identity

• Language can serve as a powerful marker of ethnic identity, expressing solidarity, shared history, and cultural values
• Ethnic groups may use language to maintain their distinct identity, resist assimilation, or assert their presence in multilingual societies
• The use of ethnic varieties or heritage languages can also be a form of cultural and linguistic preservation

Social networks and communities of practice

Strong vs weak network ties

• Social networks refer to the web of relationships and interactions between individuals in a community
• Strong network ties are close, frequent, and multiplex connections between individuals, often associated with dense, close-knit communities
• Weak network ties are more distant, less frequent, and single-stranded connections, often associated with more open, diffuse communities

Linguistic accommodation and divergence

• Linguistic accommodation refers to the process by which speakers adjust their language use to converge with or diverge from their interlocutors
• Convergence involves adopting features of the other person's speech to express solidarity, affiliation, or to facilitate communication
• Divergence involves emphasizing linguistic differences to assert identity, distance, or to maintain group boundaries

Language and group membership

• Language can serve as a marker of group membership, signaling an individual's affiliation with a particular social, cultural, or professional group
• Shared linguistic practices, such as jargon, slang, or specialized vocabulary, can create a sense of in-group identity and exclusivity
• Examples of language and group membership include the use of technical terminology in professional communities (medical jargon) or the use of slang within youth subcultures (skater slang)

Style-shifting and contextual variation

Formal vs informal language use

• Style-shifting refers to the way speakers adjust their language use depending on the social context, audience, and purpose of the interaction
• Formal language is characterized by adherence to standard grammar, more complex sentence structures, and the avoidance of colloquialisms or slang (job interviews, academic writing)
• Informal language is more relaxed, featuring contractions, colloquialisms, and simpler sentence structures (conversations with friends, social media posts)

Audience design and accommodation theory

• Audience design is the process by which speakers tailor their language use to the perceived needs, preferences, and expectations of their audience
• Accommodation theory posits that speakers adjust their language use to converge with or diverge from their interlocutors, depending on their communicative goals and social relationships
• Examples of audience design include using simpler vocabulary when speaking to children or adopting a more formal tone when addressing a supervisor

Register and situational variation

• Register refers to the linguistic varieties associated with particular social situations, purposes, or occupations (e.g., legal register, medical register, academic register)
• Situational variation involves adjusting language use to fit the specific social context, such as the level of formality, the relationship between speakers, or the communicative purpose
• Examples of register and situational variation include the use of technical jargon in professional settings (legal terms in courtrooms) or the use of baby talk with infants

Perceptual dialectology and folk linguistics

Mental maps of dialect regions

• Perceptual dialectology is the study of how non-linguists perceive and categorize dialect variation
• Mental maps are individuals' subjective representations of dialect regions, often based on their experiences, attitudes, and exposure to different varieties
• These mental maps may not always align with the actual linguistic boundaries or isoglosses identified by linguists

Language attitudes and stereotypes

• Language attitudes are the beliefs, opinions, and evaluations that individuals hold towards different language varieties, dialects, or speech communities
• Language stereotypes are oversimplified, often negative, generalizations about the speakers of a particular variety (e.g., "Southern drawl" = uneducated)
• Language attitudes and stereotypes can influence language use, language policies, and social interactions

Dialect awareness and linguistic insecurity

• Dialect awareness refers to an individual's conscious understanding of dialect differences and their social implications
• Linguistic insecurity is the feeling of unease or self-consciousness about one's own language variety, often stemming from the perception that it is inferior or less prestigious
• Dialect awareness and linguistic insecurity can impact language use, leading to style-shifting, accommodation, or the avoidance of certain features associated with one's dialect