✌🏾Intro to Sociolinguistics Unit 6 – Language and Social Class

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures based on factors such as wealth, income, education, occupation, and social status
• Sociolect describes a variety of language associated with a particular social group or class
• Linguistic capital encompasses the value and power associated with the use of a particular language or language variety within a specific social context
• Prestige varieties are language varieties that are perceived as more prestigious, desirable, or associated with high social status within a speech community
• Covert prestige refers to the hidden or underlying prestige associated with non-standard or vernacular language varieties within certain social groups
• Linguistic marketplace is a metaphorical concept that describes how language use is influenced by the perceived value and demand for certain language varieties in social interactions and institutions
• Hypercorrection occurs when speakers of a lower prestige variety overcompensate in their attempts to use features of a higher prestige variety, often resulting in the overuse or misuse of certain linguistic forms

Historical Perspectives on Language and Class

• Early studies in sociolinguistics, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, investigated the relationship between language variation and social stratification in urban settings (New York City)
• Basil Bernstein's theory of elaborated and restricted codes proposed that middle-class and working-class children were socialized into different ways of using language, which could impact their educational outcomes
  • Elaborated code was associated with middle-class language use and characterized by more complex syntax, abstract concepts, and a wider vocabulary
  • Restricted code was associated with working-class language use and characterized by simpler syntax, concrete concepts, and a more limited vocabulary
• Critics of Bernstein's theory argued that it promoted a deficit view of working-class language and failed to recognize the inherent value and complexity of all language varieties
• The study of language and social class has evolved to encompass a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between language, power, and identity in various social contexts

Socioeconomic Factors Influencing Language Use

• Income and wealth disparities can impact access to education, resources, and social networks that shape language acquisition and use
• Occupational status and the linguistic demands of different professions can influence the language varieties and communication styles used by individuals
• Educational attainment is often correlated with exposure to and mastery of standard or prestige language varieties, which can affect social mobility and opportunities
• Geographical location, including urban vs. rural settings and regional dialects, can intersect with social class to create distinct patterns of language variation
• Social networks and communities of practice, such as peer groups, families, and neighborhoods, can reinforce or challenge class-based language norms and expectations
• Intergenerational transmission of language varieties and attitudes can perpetuate or disrupt the association between language and social class over time

Linguistic Features Associated with Social Class

• Phonological variables, such as the pronunciation of certain vowels or consonants, can vary systematically across social classes (r-lessness in working-class New York City speech)
• Grammatical structures and complexity, including the use of nonstandard or vernacular forms, may be more prevalent in the speech of lower socioeconomic groups
  • Examples include double negatives, nonstandard verb forms, and the use of "ain't" in English
• Lexical choices and vocabulary size can differ across social classes, with higher socioeconomic groups often displaying a broader range of vocabulary and use of more formal or technical terms
• Discourse patterns and conversational styles, such as turn-taking, topic selection, and narrative structure, can reflect class-based differences in communication norms and expectations
• Paralinguistic features, including intonation, pitch, and volume, can convey social class identities and attitudes in subtle ways
• The use of politeness strategies and honorifics may vary across social classes and cultural contexts, reflecting differences in power dynamics and social relationships

Language Attitudes and Stereotypes

• Language attitudes refer to the beliefs, opinions, and evaluations that individuals or groups hold towards different language varieties or the speakers of those varieties
• Stereotypes about the intelligence, competence, and social desirability of speakers are often based on their language use and perceived social class
• Standard language ideology promotes the belief that there is a single, correct, and superior form of language that should be used in formal contexts and by educated speakers
  • This ideology can lead to the stigmatization and devaluation of non-standard varieties and their speakers
• Linguistic discrimination occurs when individuals are judged, excluded, or denied opportunities based on their language use or accent, often intersecting with other forms of social discrimination (classism, racism)
• Media representations and popular culture can reinforce or challenge language-based stereotypes and attitudes associated with different social classes
• Language attitudes can have significant impacts on individuals' self-perception, identity, and sense of belonging within a speech community

Code-Switching and Style-Shifting

• Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two or more languages or language varieties within a single conversation or utterance
  • Situational code-switching occurs when speakers change languages based on the social context, audience, or topic
  • Metaphorical code-switching involves using different languages to convey social meanings, identities, or relationships
• Style-shifting describes the variation in an individual's speech style based on the formality of the context or the social identity they wish to project
• Speakers may engage in upward convergence by adopting features of a higher prestige variety to signal social aspirations or to accommodate to their interlocutor's speech
• Downward convergence occurs when speakers use more non-standard or vernacular forms to express solidarity, authenticity, or group membership
• Code-switching and style-shifting can serve as linguistic strategies for managing social identities, relationships, and power dynamics across different contexts and social classes
• The use and interpretation of code-switching and style-shifting are shaped by language attitudes, social norms, and the linguistic repertoires available to speakers

Educational Implications and Language Policies

• Language policies in education can have significant impacts on the linguistic development and academic success of students from different social class backgrounds
• Standardized testing and assessment practices may disadvantage students who speak non-standard varieties or have limited exposure to academic language
• Bilingual or multilingual education programs can provide opportunities for students to develop proficiency in both their home language and the dominant language of schooling
  • However, the design and implementation of these programs can vary widely and may not always adequately address the needs of students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds
• Teacher attitudes and expectations towards students' language use can influence classroom interactions, assessment practices, and student outcomes
• Culturally responsive teaching approaches emphasize the value of linguistic diversity and seek to build on students' existing language skills and knowledge
• Efforts to promote linguistic equity in education may involve teacher training, curriculum reform, and community engagement to challenge language-based discrimination and create inclusive learning environments

Current Research and Future Directions

• Intersectionality has become an increasingly important framework for examining the complex interplay between language, social class, and other dimensions of identity (race, ethnicity, gender)
• The study of language and social class has expanded to include a wider range of linguistic features, such as prosody, gesture, and multimodal communication
• Researchers are investigating the role of language in perpetuating or challenging social inequalities, particularly in institutional contexts such as healthcare, law, and the workplace
• The impact of globalization, migration, and technological change on language use and class dynamics is an emerging area of inquiry
  • This includes the study of language and social class in online communities, social media, and digital communication
• Collaborative research involving linguists, educators, policymakers, and community members is crucial for developing evidence-based approaches to promoting linguistic equity and social justice
• Future research should continue to explore the ways in which language and social class intersect with other forms of social differentiation, as well as the potential for language to serve as a tool for empowerment and social change