9.2 Critical discourse analysis

Critical discourse analysis examines how language shapes power dynamics in society. It views language as a social practice that constructs identities and relationships, not just a neutral communication tool. CDA investigates how dominant groups use discourse to maintain authority and marginalize alternative voices.

CDA combines linguistic analysis with social theory to uncover hidden ideologies in everyday language. It explores how power is exercised through discourse in politics, media, and institutions. CDA also examines how ideologies become naturalized as common sense and how they can be challenged through counter-discourses.

Origins of critical discourse analysis

• Emerged in the late 1980s as a field of study that combines linguistic analysis with social theory to examine how language is used to construct and maintain power relations in society
• Draws on various theoretical traditions, including Marxism, post-structuralism, and critical theory, to investigate the relationship between language, ideology, and power
• Developed by scholars such as Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, and Teun van Dijk who sought to uncover the hidden ideologies and power structures embedded in everyday language use

Key principles of CDA

Language as social practice

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• Views language not merely as a neutral means of communication but as a form of social practice that shapes and is shaped by social structures and power relations
• Emphasizes the role of language in constructing and reproducing social identities, relationships, and systems of knowledge and belief
• Recognizes that language use is always situated within specific historical, cultural, and institutional contexts that influence its meaning and effects

Discourse and power relations

• Examines how discourse (language use in speech and writing) is used to establish, maintain, and challenge power relations in society
• Investigates how dominant groups use language to assert their authority and legitimize their interests while marginalizing or silencing alternative voices
• Explores how power is exercised through discourse in various social domains, such as politics, media, education, and everyday interactions

Ideology in discourse

• Analyzes how ideologies (systems of ideas, beliefs, and values) are encoded and reproduced in discourse
• Uncovers the ways in which dominant ideologies are naturalized and presented as common sense while alternative ideologies are marginalized or delegitimized
• Examines how ideologies shape people's understanding of social reality and their own identities and how they can be challenged or resisted through counter-discourses

Methodological approaches in CDA

Textual analysis in CDA

• Involves close linguistic analysis of texts (written or spoken) to identify the linguistic features and strategies used to construct meaning and convey ideological positions
• Examines aspects such as vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical devices, and intertextuality to uncover the hidden assumptions and biases in texts
• Analyzes how texts are structured and organized to create coherence and persuasive effects (e.g., the use of narrative structures, argumentation strategies)

Discursive practices analysis

• Focuses on the production, distribution, and consumption of texts and how these practices are shaped by social and institutional contexts
• Investigates how texts are created, circulated, and interpreted by different social actors and how these practices are influenced by power relations and ideologies
• Examines the role of gatekeepers (e.g., editors, publishers) in shaping the content and form of texts and the ways in which audiences engage with and make sense of texts

Social practices analysis

• Situates discourse within broader social and cultural practices and examines how these practices are constituted and regulated by discourse
• Investigates how discourse is used to construct and maintain social identities, relationships, and institutions and how these are challenged or transformed through social struggles and resistance
• Analyzes the historical and cultural contexts in which discourses emerge and evolve and how they are linked to wider social, political, and economic processes (e.g., globalization, neoliberalism)

Applications of CDA

CDA in political discourse

• Examines how political actors use language to persuade, manipulate, and mobilize audiences and how political ideologies are encoded and reproduced in discourse
• Analyzes the rhetorical strategies and linguistic devices used by politicians to construct their identities, legitimize their policies, and delegitimize their opponents (e.g., the use of metaphors, euphemisms, and presuppositions)
• Investigates how political discourse is shaped by institutional contexts (e.g., parliamentary debates, election campaigns) and how it influences public opinion and policy-making processes

CDA in media discourse

• Analyzes how media texts (news articles, advertisements, social media posts) construct representations of social reality and how these representations are shaped by ideological and commercial interests
• Examines the linguistic and visual strategies used by media producers to frame events, issues, and social groups and how these frames influence public perceptions and attitudes
• Investigates how media discourses reproduce or challenge dominant ideologies and power relations and how they shape public debates and decision-making processes

CDA in institutional discourse

• Examines how language is used in institutional settings (schools, hospitals, courtrooms) to construct and maintain power relations and social identities
• Analyzes the discursive practices and strategies used by institutional actors (teachers, doctors, judges) to assert their authority, regulate behavior, and reproduce institutional norms and values
• Investigates how institutional discourses shape the experiences and subjectivities of individuals and how they can be resisted or subverted through counter-discourses and alternative practices

Critiques and limitations of CDA

• Some critics argue that CDA is too politically engaged and lacks objectivity, as researchers often have explicit political agendas and may selectively analyze texts to support their ideological positions
• Others point out that CDA tends to focus on the negative aspects of discourse and power relations, neglecting the ways in which discourse can also be used for positive social change and empowerment
• There are concerns about the representativeness and generalizability of CDA findings, as studies often focus on specific texts or contexts and may not be applicable to other situations or languages
• Some scholars argue that CDA places too much emphasis on the role of language in shaping social reality, neglecting other important factors such as material conditions, social structures, and individual agency

Future directions of CDA research

• Developing more interdisciplinary approaches that integrate insights from other fields, such as cognitive linguistics, social psychology, and cultural studies, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of discourse and society
• Expanding the scope of CDA to include new forms of digital communication and social media, which have become increasingly important in shaping public discourse and power relations
• Conducting more comparative and cross-cultural studies to investigate how discourses and power relations vary across different languages, cultures, and social contexts
• Engaging more actively with social movements and marginalized communities to develop collaborative and participatory research methods that empower individuals and groups to challenge dominant discourses and create alternative narratives for social change