2.2 Colonial America and the construction of race

Colonial America laid the groundwork for racial hierarchies that persist today. European colonizers established social structures based on race, with whites at the top. This system justified the exploitation of non-white populations and resources.

Racial classifications were developed to maintain these hierarchies. "Whiteness" was constructed to distinguish Europeans from others. Africans were increasingly enslaved, while Native Americans faced displacement and forced assimilation.

Colonial Racial Hierarchies

Colonial Power Structures and Exploitation

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• Colonialism involves the domination and exploitation of indigenous populations and resources by a foreign power
• European colonizers established hierarchical social structures in the Americas based on race, with white Europeans at the top
• White supremacy, the belief in the inherent superiority of the white race, was used to justify the oppression and enslavement of non-white populations
• Indentured servitude, a form of temporary labor in which individuals worked for a set period to pay off debts or passage to the colonies, was initially used for both white Europeans and Africans (Irish, English)

Racial Classifications and Stratification

• Racial classification systems were developed to categorize people based on perceived racial differences and to maintain social hierarchies
• The concept of "whiteness" was constructed to distinguish Europeans from other races and to justify their position of power
• Africans were increasingly seen as a permanent, enslaved labor force, unlike white indentured servants who could eventually gain freedom
• Native Americans were viewed as "savages" and were displaced, exploited, and subjected to forced assimilation policies (boarding schools, Christianization)

Racial Conflict and Rebellion

Resistance to Racial Oppression

• Bacon's Rebellion (1676) was an uprising of white and black indentured servants and enslaved Africans against the Virginia colonial government, highlighting tensions between the wealthy elite and the lower classes
• The rebellion led to a solidification of racial divisions as a means of maintaining social control, with white indentured servants being granted more rights and privileges to prevent future alliances with enslaved Africans
• Enslaved Africans and Native Americans engaged in various forms of resistance, including rebellions, escape attempts, and cultural preservation (Stono Rebellion, Maroon communities)

Legal Reinforcement of Racial Hierarchies

• Miscegenation laws were enacted to prohibit interracial marriages and relationships, maintaining racial boundaries and preserving white racial purity
• The one-drop rule, which classified individuals with any amount of African ancestry as black, was used to reinforce racial hierarchies and limit access to privileges associated with whiteness
• Slave codes were established to regulate the behavior and movement of enslaved Africans, denying them basic rights and freedoms (Virginia Slave Codes of 1705)

Westward Expansion and Native Americans

Displacement and Removal of Native Populations

• As the United States expanded westward, Native American populations were systematically displaced from their ancestral lands through forced removal policies and treaties (Trail of Tears, Indian Removal Act of 1830)
• Native American removal was justified by the belief in Manifest Destiny, the idea that American territorial expansion was divinely ordained and inevitable
• Westward expansion led to the destruction of Native American societies, cultures, and ways of life, as well as the loss of land and resources (California Gold Rush, Homestead Act of 1862)

Assimilation and Cultural Erasure

• Native American children were often forcibly removed from their families and sent to boarding schools, where they were prohibited from speaking their native languages and practicing their cultural traditions (Carlisle Indian Industrial School)
• The goal of these assimilation policies was to "civilize" Native Americans and erase their cultural identities, promoting conformity to white American society
• Native American resistance to assimilation took various forms, including armed conflicts (Sioux Wars, Apache Wars), legal challenges (Worcester v. Georgia), and cultural preservation efforts (Ghost Dance movement)