🏺Intro to Greek and Roman Archaeology Unit 3 – Dark Ages to Greek City-States Emergence

Historical Context

• Followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization around 1200 BCE, marking the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages
• Characterized by a decline in population, loss of writing systems (Linear B), and a decrease in trade and cultural exchange
• Lasted from approximately 1200 BCE to 800 BCE, transitioning into the Archaic period
• Saw the emergence of the Greek city-states (poleis) as the dominant political structure
  • Developed from small farming villages that grew and consolidated power
  • Examples include Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes
• Witnessed the development of the Greek alphabet, adapted from the Phoenician script around 800 BCE
• Experienced a gradual recovery in population, trade, and cultural activity towards the end of the period
• Laid the foundation for the rise of Greek civilization in the Archaic and Classical periods

Key Archaeological Sites

• Athens, located in Attica, became a major center of power and culture
  • The Acropolis, a fortified citadel, served as the religious and administrative center
  • The Agora, a central public space, functioned as a marketplace and gathering place for political discussions
• Sparta, situated in the Peloponnese, emerged as a militaristic city-state
  • Known for its unique social structure and emphasis on military training
  • The Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, an important religious site, yielded artifacts related to Spartan religious practices
• Lefkandi, an early Iron Age site on the island of Euboea, provided insights into the transition from the Dark Ages to the Archaic period
  • The Heroon, a large building believed to be a chief's dwelling or a hero shrine, showcased advanced architectural techniques
  • Burials at Lefkandi revealed valuable grave goods, indicating social stratification and trade contacts
• Nichoria, a site in Messenia, demonstrated the development of early Greek settlements
  • Excavations revealed a transition from small, scattered villages to a more organized community
  • Findings included pottery, bronze objects, and evidence of agricultural practices
• The Sanctuary of Hera at Samos, an important religious center, underwent significant development during this period
  • The Heraion, the main temple dedicated to Hera, exhibited the early stages of monumental Greek architecture

Social and Political Structures

• Greek society was organized into city-states (poleis), each with its own government, laws, and customs
• Aristocratic families held significant power and influence in the early stages of city-state development
  • Wealth was derived from land ownership and control over resources
  • Political power was often passed down through noble lineages
• The concept of citizenship emerged, granting certain rights and privileges to free male inhabitants of the city-state
• Sparta developed a unique social structure centered around a strong military ethos
  • Society was divided into three main classes: Spartiates (full citizens), Perioikoi (free non-citizens), and Helots (state-owned serfs)
  • The Spartan education system (agoge) focused on military training and discipline
• Athens laid the groundwork for the development of democracy in the later Archaic and Classical periods
  • The reforms of Solon (c. 594 BCE) aimed to alleviate social tensions and debt-slavery
  • The tyranny of Peisistratus (r. 561-527 BCE) saw the centralization of power and patronage of the arts
• The concept of the polis as a community of citizens with shared values and interests began to take shape

Economic Systems

• Agriculture formed the backbone of the Greek economy, with the cultivation of crops such as wheat, barley, olives, and grapes
• Land ownership was a key determinant of wealth and social status
  • Large estates were owned by aristocratic families, while smaller plots were worked by independent farmers
  • The concept of private property began to develop, with land being bought, sold, and inherited
• Craft production and trade started to recover and expand during this period
  • Pottery, metalwork, and textiles were among the main goods produced and traded
  • The introduction of coinage in the late 7th century BCE facilitated trade and exchange
• Maritime trade routes began to re-emerge, connecting the Greek world with the wider Mediterranean
  • The Euboean city-states, such as Chalcis and Eretria, were early pioneers in establishing trade networks
  • The foundation of Greek colonies in the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions expanded trade opportunities
• The rise of commercial activities and the growth of a merchant class began to challenge the traditional aristocratic order

Art and Architecture

• The Dark Ages saw a decline in artistic production compared to the preceding Mycenaean period
• Pottery styles evolved from the Submycenaean and Protogeometric to the Geometric style
  • Geometric pottery featured abstract motifs, such as meanders and zigzags, arranged in horizontal bands
  • Later Geometric pottery incorporated human and animal figures, often depicting mythological scenes or funerary rituals
• Metalworking techniques advanced, with the production of bronze figurines, weapons, and armor
  • The Geometric period saw the emergence of large-scale bronze sculptures, such as the famous Dipylon Kouros from Athens
• Architecture began to transition from the Mycenaean megaron to the early forms of the Greek temple
  • The Heraion at Samos and the Heroon at Lefkandi showcased the development of monumental architecture
  • The use of mud-brick and wooden structures gradually gave way to the use of stone in temple construction
• The foundation was laid for the development of the Greek architectural orders (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian) in the later Archaic period

Religious Practices

• Religion played a central role in Greek society, with the worship of a pantheon of gods and goddesses
• The Olympian gods, such as Zeus, Hera, Athena, and Apollo, began to take on their familiar roles and attributes
• Religious festivals and rituals served to unite the community and reinforce social bonds
  • The Panhellenic festivals, such as the Olympic Games (founded in 776 BCE), brought together Greeks from different city-states
  • Mystery cults, such as the Eleusinian Mysteries, offered initiates the promise of a better afterlife
• Sanctuaries and temples were established as places of worship and offerings to the gods
  • The Sanctuary of Hera at Samos and the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Sparta were important religious centers
  • Votive offerings, such as figurines and pottery, were dedicated to the gods as acts of piety
• The practice of hero cults, honoring legendary figures and ancestors, emerged during this period
  • The Heroon at Lefkandi is believed to be an early example of a hero shrine
• Oracles, such as the Oracle of Delphi, gained prominence as sources of divine guidance and prophecy

Technological Advancements

• The introduction of iron metallurgy revolutionized warfare and agriculture
  • Iron weapons and tools became more common, gradually replacing bronze
  • Iron agricultural implements, such as plowshares and sickles, improved farming efficiency
• Advancements in shipbuilding and navigation facilitated maritime trade and colonization
  • The development of the trireme, a warship with three rows of oars, enhanced naval warfare capabilities
  • The use of the stars for navigation, particularly the constellation Ursa Minor, allowed for longer sea voyages
• The adoption of the Phoenician alphabet and its adaptation into the Greek alphabet had far-reaching consequences
  • The spread of literacy facilitated the recording and transmission of knowledge
  • The development of a written language laid the foundation for the flourishing of Greek literature in later periods
• Improvements in pottery production techniques led to the creation of finer and more durable vessels
  • The use of the potter's wheel and advancements in firing techniques resulted in higher-quality pottery
  • The introduction of new shapes, such as the amphora and krater, served various purposes in daily life and trade

Legacy and Influence

• The Greek Dark Ages laid the foundation for the rise of Greek civilization in the Archaic and Classical periods
• The emergence of the city-state (polis) as the basic unit of Greek society had a lasting impact on political thought and practice
  • The concept of citizenship and the participation of free men in the political process became a defining feature of Greek democracy
  • The rivalry between city-states, particularly Athens and Sparta, shaped the course of Greek history
• The development of the Greek alphabet facilitated the spread of ideas and knowledge
  • The works of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, were composed and transmitted orally during this period, becoming foundational texts of Greek literature
  • The recording of laws, such as Draco's code in Athens (c. 621 BCE), marked the beginning of written legal systems
• Greek art and architecture from this period, particularly the Geometric style, influenced later artistic developments
  • The use of geometric motifs and the representation of human figures in art set the stage for the naturalistic style of the Classical period
  • The early forms of the Greek temple, such as the Heraion at Samos, paved the way for the iconic temples of the Archaic and Classical periods
• The religious practices and beliefs that emerged during the Dark Ages had a lasting impact on Greek culture
  • The Olympian pantheon and the associated myths and legends became an integral part of Greek identity
  • The Panhellenic festivals, particularly the Olympic Games, fostered a sense of shared Hellenic culture and identity
• The Greek Dark Ages, despite being a period of decline and transition, set the stage for the remarkable achievements of ancient Greek civilization in the centuries that followed