13.1 The Development of Chinese Cinema and Its Relationship to Literature

Chinese cinema emerged in the early 1900s, influenced by literary movements like May Fourth and socialist realism. These shaped film themes and styles, from left-wing social critiques to propaganda pieces glorifying the Communist Party.

The relationship between cinema and literature evolved over time. Writers adapted their works for the screen, while filmmakers drew inspiration from avant-garde literature. This collaboration produced influential films that sparked cultural debates and shaped public opinion.

Chinese Cinema's Historical Development

Early 20th Century Emergence

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• Chinese cinema emerged in the early 20th century with the production of the first Chinese film, The Battle of Dingjunshan (1905)
• The 1920s saw the rise of the left-wing cinema movement influenced by the May Fourth Movement and the New Culture Movement in literature
  • These movements emphasized realism and social critique
  • Left-wing cinema addressed social issues and class struggles
• The popularization of the Mandarin Duck and Butterfly school of literature in the 1920s and 1930s contributed to the rise of the "soft film" genre
  • "Soft films" focused on romance, melodrama, and escapism (e.g., The Peach Girl, 1931)
  • This genre drew inspiration from popular literary works of the time

Post-1949 Socialist Realism and Beyond

• The post-1949 era saw the dominance of socialist realism in both cinema and literature as the Chinese Communist Party used these mediums for propaganda and ideological education
  • Films glorified the working class and the Communist Party (e.g., The White-Haired Girl, 1950)
  • Socialist realist literature provided a rich source of material for filmmakers who adapted novels and plays into ideologically-charged films
• The 1980s and 1990s marked the emergence of the Fifth Generation and Sixth Generation filmmakers who experimented with new cinematic techniques and themes
  • Fifth Generation filmmakers, such as Zhang Yimou and Chen Kaige, drew inspiration from avant-garde literature (e.g., Red Sorghum, 1988)
  • Sixth Generation filmmakers, like Jia Zhangke and Wang Xiaoshuai, focused on urban alienation and social realism, collaborating with "urban generation" writers (e.g., Beijing Bicycle, 2001)

Literary Influences on Chinese Film

May Fourth Movement and Left-Wing Cinema

• The May Fourth Movement (1910s-1920s) and its emphasis on realism and social critique influenced the development of left-wing cinema
  • Left-wing films addressed social issues and class struggles (e.g., The Goddess, 1934)
  • Many writers, such as Mao Dun and Tian Han, were directly involved in the film industry, writing screenplays and adapting their own works for the screen

Mandarin Duck and Butterfly School and "Soft Films"

• The popularization of the Mandarin Duck and Butterfly school of literature in the 1920s and 1930s contributed to the rise of the "soft film" genre
  • "Soft films" focused on romance, melodrama, and escapism (e.g., New Women, 1935)
  • This genre drew inspiration from popular literary works of the time, often adapting novels and short stories

Socialist Realism in Literature and Film

• Socialist realism, which dominated Chinese literature in the 1950s and 1960s, heavily influenced the cinema of the same period
  • Films glorified the working class and the Communist Party (e.g., The Red Detachment of Women, 1961)
  • Socialist realist literature provided a rich source of material for filmmakers who adapted novels and plays into ideologically-charged films

Avant-Garde Literature and Fifth Generation Cinema

• The avant-garde literature of the 1980s, known as "misty poetry" and "scar literature," inspired Fifth Generation filmmakers to experiment with abstract and symbolic cinematic language
  • Fifth Generation films challenged traditional values and sparked public debates on cultural identity and modernity (e.g., Raise the Red Lantern, 1991)
  • Filmmakers drew inspiration from the works of avant-garde writers like Mo Yan and Yu Hua

"Urban Generation" Literature and Sixth Generation Cinema

• The "urban generation" literature of the 1990s, which depicted the lives of marginalized individuals in rapidly modernizing cities, influenced the Sixth Generation filmmakers' focus on urban alienation and social realism
  • Sixth Generation films exposed the dark side of China's economic reforms, prompting discussions on social issues like urban poverty, crime, and alienation (e.g., Suzhou River, 2000)
  • Filmmakers often collaborated with "urban generation" writers, such as Wang Shuo and Zhu Wen, to create gritty, realistic portrayals of contemporary urban life

Cinema's Role in Shaping Culture

Raising Public Awareness and Mobilizing the Masses

• Left-wing cinema of the 1920s and 1930s raised public awareness of social inequalities and contributed to the growth of the Chinese Communist Party
  • Films like Spring Silkworms (1933) and Crossroads (1937) depicted the struggles of the working class and peasants
  • These films helped to mobilize support for the Communist Party and its agenda
• Films produced during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) played a crucial role in mobilizing the public against the Japanese invasion and promoting nationalist sentiment
  • Patriotic films like Defend Our Land (1938) and The 400 Million (1939) rallied the Chinese people to resist the Japanese occupation
  • These films contributed to the strengthening of Chinese national identity and unity in the face of foreign aggression

Ideological Indoctrination and Shaping Public Opinion

• Socialist realist films of the 1950s and 1960s served as powerful tools for ideological indoctrination, shaping public opinion in favor of the Communist Party and its policies
  • Films like The White-Haired Girl (1950) and The Red Detachment of Women (1961) glorified the Communist Revolution and the role of the Party in liberating the oppressed
  • These films helped to consolidate the Party's power and legitimacy in the eyes of the public
• The Fifth Generation films of the 1980s, such as Yellow Earth (1984) and Red Sorghum (1988), challenged traditional values and sparked public debates on cultural identity and modernity
  • These films questioned the orthodox socialist realist style and explored themes of individualism, sexuality, and the conflict between tradition and modernity
  • The critical success of these films both domestically and internationally helped to reshape public perceptions of Chinese cinema and culture

Exposing Social Issues and Prompting Discussions

• Sixth Generation films of the 1990s and early 2000s exposed the dark side of China's economic reforms, prompting discussions on social issues like urban poverty, crime, and alienation
  • Films like Beijing Bicycle (2001) and Still Life (2006) depicted the struggles of marginalized individuals in rapidly modernizing cities
  • These films brought attention to the social costs of China's economic development and sparked public debates on issues of inequality, corruption, and the erosion of traditional values
• The commercial success of films adapted from popular novels, such as Zhang Yimou's Hero (2002) and Chen Kaige's The Promise (2005), demonstrated the enduring appeal of literary adaptations in Chinese cinema
  • These films, which drew upon classic Chinese literary themes and aesthetics, helped to promote Chinese culture and history to both domestic and international audiences
  • The popularity of these films also highlighted the continued importance of literature as a source of inspiration and cultural capital for Chinese cinema

Chinese Cinema vs Literature

Collaboration and Adaptation

• In the 1920s and 1930s, many writers, such as Mao Dun and Tian Han, were directly involved in the film industry, writing screenplays and adapting their own works for the screen
  • Mao Dun, a prominent left-wing writer, adapted his own novel Spring Silkworms (1932) into a film in 1933
  • Tian Han, a leading playwright and poet, wrote the screenplay for the classic film Crossroads (1937)
• The socialist realist literature of the 1950s and 1960s provided a rich source of material for filmmakers, who adapted novels and plays into ideologically-charged films
  • The film The White-Haired Girl (1950) was based on a popular opera of the same name, which in turn was adapted from a folk legend
  • The Red Detachment of Women (1961) was adapted from a ballet, which itself was based on a true story from the Chinese Civil War

Mutual Influence and Inspiration

• The 1980s saw a surge in literary adaptations, as Fifth Generation filmmakers drew inspiration from the works of avant-garde writers like Mo Yan and Yu Hua
  • Zhang Yimou's Red Sorghum (1988) was adapted from Mo Yan's novel of the same name, which helped to establish Mo Yan as a leading figure in Chinese literature
  • Chen Kaige's Life on a String (1991) was inspired by the works of avant-garde writer Su Tong, whose novella Raise the Red Lantern was later adapted into a film by Zhang Yimou
• In the 1990s and early 2000s, Sixth Generation filmmakers often collaborated with "urban generation" writers, such as Wang Shuo and Zhu Wen, to create gritty, realistic portrayals of contemporary urban life
  • Wang Xiaoshuai's Beijing Bicycle (2001) was co-written by Wang Shuo, whose irreverent, satirical style helped to capture the disillusionment of urban youth
  • Zhu Wen, a leading "urban generation" writer, directed his own adaptation of his short story Seafood (2001), which explored themes of alienation and despair in modern China

Enduring Appeal of Literary Adaptations

• The commercial success of films adapted from popular novels, such as Zhang Yimou's Hero (2002) and Chen Kaige's The Promise (2005), demonstrated the enduring appeal of literary adaptations in Chinese cinema
  • Hero (2002), which was loosely based on the story of Jing Ke's assassination attempt on the King of Qin, became the highest-grossing Chinese film of all time upon its release
  • The Promise (2005), adapted from a novel by Chen Kaige himself, showcased the director's ability to blend literary storytelling with stunning visual aesthetics
• The continued popularity of literary adaptations in Chinese cinema highlights the deep interconnections between film and literature in shaping Chinese culture and identity
  • Adaptations of classic novels, such as Dream of the Red Chamber and Journey to the West, have been a staple of Chinese cinema since its early days
  • The success of recent adaptations, like the animated film Monkey King: Hero Is Back (2015) and the fantasy epic The Wandering Earth (2019), underscores the enduring appeal of literary source material in Chinese popular culture