6.1 The Establishment of Socialist Realism in China

Socialist realism in China emerged after the CCP's 1949 takeover. Mao's Yan'an Forum speeches set the stage, emphasizing art for the masses and ideological correctness. Soviet influences shaped China's approach, promoting positive heroes and working-class themes.

The movement prioritized accessibility and mass appeal. Writers focused on workers, peasants, and soldiers, using simple language. This shift limited artistic expression, leading to formulaic narratives and suppression of alternative voices during the Cultural Revolution.

Socialist Realism in China

Political and Cultural Contexts

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• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) gained control of mainland China in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China under the leadership of Mao Zedong
• The CCP aimed to transform China into a socialist society, which necessitated aligning art and literature with the party's ideological goals
• The Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art in 1942, led by Mao Zedong, laid the groundwork for the development of socialist realism in China
• Mao's "Talks at the Yan'an Forum" stressed that literature and art should serve the interests of the working class and the revolutionary cause
• The CCP's cultural policies in the 1950s promoted the concept of "art for the people" and the need for artists to engage with the masses
• The influence of Soviet socialist realism, which had been adopted in the Soviet Union under Stalin, significantly shaped the Chinese approach to socialist realism

Influence of Soviet Socialist Realism

• Soviet socialist realism, developed under Stalin's rule, served as a model for the Chinese adoption of this literary mode
• The Soviet Union's cultural policies and artistic practices were closely studied and emulated by Chinese cultural authorities
• Chinese writers and artists were encouraged to learn from Soviet examples and adapt them to the Chinese context
• The emphasis on ideological correctness, positive heroes, and the glorification of the working class in Soviet literature was mirrored in Chinese socialist realist works
• Soviet literary works, such as Maxim Gorky's "Mother" and Mikhail Sholokhov's "And Quiet Flows the Don," were widely translated and promoted in China as exemplars of socialist realism

Principles of Socialist Realism

Ideological Correctness and Positive Portrayal

• Socialist realist literature in China aimed to depict the lives and struggles of the working class, peasants, and soldiers in a positive light
• Works were expected to adhere to the principles of Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, ensuring ideological correctness
• Characters in socialist realist works were often portrayed as archetypal heroes or villains, representing the virtues of the proletariat or the vices of the bourgeoisie
• The concept of "revolutionary romanticism" was incorporated into socialist realist literature, emphasizing the heroic aspects of the revolutionary struggle
• Socialist realist literature often depicted the transformation of individuals through their participation in the revolutionary cause and their embrace of socialist values

Accessibility and Mass Appeal

• The use of vernacular language and accessible styles was encouraged to ensure that literature could be understood by the masses
• Writers were expected to engage with the lives and experiences of ordinary people, particularly workers, peasants, and soldiers
• Literature was seen as a tool for educating and mobilizing the masses, promoting socialist values and revolutionary ideals
• The emphasis on accessibility led to the simplification of literary forms and the prioritization of content over artistic experimentation
• Examples of accessible socialist realist works include Zhao Shuli's "Changes in Li Village" and Hao Ran's "Bright Sunny Skies," which depicted rural life and the transformation of the countryside under socialist policies

Impact of Socialist Realism

Shift in Themes and Styles

• The adoption of socialist realism as the dominant literary mode in China led to a significant shift in the themes and styles of literary works
• Literature focused on the lives and struggles of the working class, the collective over the individual, and the glorification of the revolutionary cause
• Traditional and modernist literary forms were discouraged in favor of works that adhered to the principles of socialist realism
• The emphasis on ideological correctness and positive portrayal limited the range of topics and perspectives explored in literature
• Examples of the shift in themes and styles can be seen in the contrast between pre-1949 works, such as Lu Xun's "The True Story of Ah Q," and socialist realist novels like "The Song of Youth" by Yang Mo

Artistic Limitations and Suppression

• The rigidity of socialist realism stifled artistic innovation and individual expression, as writers were expected to adhere to prescribed formulas and narratives
• Many writers felt compelled to conform to the principles of socialist realism to avoid censorship and political persecution
• The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) further intensified the enforcement of socialist realism, leading to the suppression of alternative literary forms and voices
• Writers who deviated from the strict guidelines of socialist realism faced criticism, censorship, and even imprisonment
• The case of Hu Feng, a literary critic who advocated for greater artistic freedom, exemplifies the suppression of dissenting voices during this period

Writers and Socialist Realism

Promotion and Enforcement

• The Chinese Writers Association, established in 1949, played a crucial role in promoting socialist realist literature and enforcing adherence to its principles
• Many writers and intellectuals in China initially supported the CCP's cultural policies and the adoption of socialist realism
• Writers such as Zhao Shuli and Hao Ran became celebrated figures for their works that exemplified the ideals of socialist realism
• Intellectuals were encouraged to participate in mass campaigns and cultural activities aimed at educating and mobilizing the public in support of socialist realism
• The Anti-Rightist Campaign (1957-1959) targeted intellectuals who were perceived as critical of the party's policies, leading to the suppression of dissenting voices in the literary world

Challenges and Dissent

• Some writers, such as Ding Ling and Wang Meng, initially embraced socialist realism but later faced criticism for deviating from its strict guidelines
• Ding Ling's "The Sun Shines Over the Sanggan River" and Wang Meng's "The Young Newcomer in the Organization Department" were criticized for their portrayal of flawed characters and their exploration of individual desires
• Hu Feng, a prominent literary critic, faced persecution for challenging the dominant literary discourse and advocating for greater artistic freedom
• The Hu Feng Incident in 1955 marked a turning point in the enforcement of socialist realism, as it sent a clear message to writers about the consequences of dissent
• Despite the challenges and limitations imposed by socialist realism, some writers managed to subvert its conventions through subtle means, such as the use of irony, allegory, and ambiguity in their works