6.1 The development of Hanshi (Chinese-style poetry) in Korea

Hanshi, Chinese-style poetry, blossomed in Korea during the Goryeo dynasty. It started in the Three Kingdoms period but really took off with increased exchanges with Song China. Korean poets adopted Chinese forms and conventions, but added their own flair.

Hanshi became a big deal in Goryeo society. It was crucial for passing civil service exams and climbing the social ladder. Poets used it to show off their smarts, network, and even sneak in some political commentary. It wasn't just about pretty words - Hanshi was a cultural powerhouse.

Hanshi Poetry in Goryeo

Historical Development

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• Hanshi (Chinese-style poetry) flourished during the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392) after introduction in Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE - 935 CE)
• Early Goryeo saw increased literary exchanges with Song dynasty China led to greater emphasis on Hanshi among Korean literati
• Mid-Goryeo (11th-12th centuries) witnessed emergence of distinctive Korean styles blending Chinese conventions with native sensibilities
• Late Goryeo period cemented Hanshi's importance by incorporating it into civil service examination system
• Rise of Neo-Confucianism closely tied to Hanshi development influenced themes and social function of poetry
• Choe Chiwon (857-915) laid foundation for Hanshi in Korea before Goryeo period began

Poetic Forms and Conventions

• Korean Hanshi adopted major Chinese poetic forms (shi, fu, ci) each with unique structural and stylistic conventions
• Classical Chinese (hanmun) used as primary written language reinforced close relationship between Korean and Chinese literary traditions
• Korean poets emulated renowned Chinese poets (Li Bai, Du Fu, Su Shi) adapting themes and techniques to Korean contexts
• Nature imagery and seasonal references central to Chinese poetry became equally important in Korean Hanshi
  • Often reflected Korea's distinct landscape and climate (Baekdu Mountain, Han River)
• Poetic allusion (jeongo) widely employed demonstrated Korean poets' deep knowledge of Chinese literary classics

Social and Cultural Context

• Goryeo aristocracy's emphasis on Chinese learning created fertile environment for Hanshi cultivation
• Hanshi composition essential for success in civil service examinations made it key component of elite education and social advancement
• Literary gatherings and poetry competitions became important social activities among literati
  • Fostered exchange of ideas and development of poetic skills
• Establishment of Goryeo Triple Histories project in 12th century stimulated interest in historical poetry
• Buddhist influences led to integration of Buddhist themes and imagery into Hanshi creating unique syncretic poetic tradition
• Rise of private academies (seowon) in late Goryeo provided new spaces for Hanshi study and composition outside official court system
• Political factionalism and social upheavals in late Goryeo influenced themes and tone of Hanshi
  • Many poets used works to comment on current affairs or express personal frustrations

Chinese Influence on Hanshi

Thematic Elements

• Confucian themes prevalent in Chinese poetry incorporated into Korean Hanshi
  • Loyalty, filial piety, moral cultivation reflected shared cultural values of literati class
• Nature imagery adapted to Korean landscape while maintaining Chinese poetic conventions
  • Mountains, rivers, seasons featured prominently (Geumgang Mountains, Nakdong River)
• Historical and mythological allusions from Chinese classics frequently employed
  • References to figures like Confucius, Mencius, or legendary Chinese emperors
• Emotional expressions often followed Chinese models
  • Concepts like melancholy (愁), joy (喜), and longing (思) expressed through established imagery

Stylistic Techniques

• Use of parallelism and antithesis common in Chinese poetry adopted in Korean Hanshi
• Tonal patterns and rhyme schemes of Chinese poetry adapted to Korean phonetic system
• Imagery and symbolism drawn from Chinese tradition
  • Plum blossoms representing perseverance, chrysanthemums symbolizing nobility
• Structural elements like couplets and quatrains followed Chinese models
• Calligraphic presentation of poems often emulated Chinese aesthetic principles

Literary Exchange and Adaptation

• Korean literati studied and memorized Chinese poetry as part of their education
• Diplomatic missions to China provided opportunities for direct literary exchange
• Chinese poetic anthologies and literary criticism widely circulated in Korea
• Korean poets often composed poems in response to famous Chinese works
  • Practice of "matching rhymes" (和韻) popular among Korean literati
• Gradual development of distinctly Korean styles within Chinese-influenced framework
  • Incorporation of Korean place names, historical figures, and cultural references

Prominent Hanshi Poets

Early Goryeo Masters

• Kim Busik (1075-1151) renowned for historical poetry blending Chinese styles with Korean subject matter
  • Author of Samguk Sagi, incorporated poetic elements into historical writing
• Yi Inro (1152-1220) famous for nature poetry and philosophical verses
  • Developed distinctive style combining Chinese aesthetics with Korean sensibility

Mid-Goryeo Innovators

• Yi Kyubo (1168-1241) prolific poet who experimented with various Chinese forms
  • Introduced more colloquial elements into verses
  • Composed over 1,000 poems on diverse subjects from politics to daily life
• Choe Chung (1287-1340) known for elegant and refined style
  • Emphasized moral and philosophical themes in poetry
  • Influential in developing Neo-Confucian poetic tradition in Korea

Late Goryeo Luminaries

• Yi Saek (1328-1396) "the Venerable Mogeun" considered one of greatest Hanshi poets of late Goryeo
  • Famous for erudition and stylistic innovations
  • Composed poems on wide range of topics from nature to politics
• Jeong Dojeon (1342-1398) made significant contributions to philosophical and political poetry
  • Used Hanshi as vehicle for expressing Neo-Confucian ideals
  • Poetry reflected tumultuous political climate of late Goryeo

Social Context of Hanshi

Educational and Career Significance

• Hanshi composition essential skill for success in civil service examinations
  • Candidates required to compose poems on given themes or in specific forms
• Proficiency in Hanshi marker of cultural refinement and intellectual ability
• Literary gatherings and poetry competitions important for networking and career advancement
  • Success in these events could lead to official appointments or promotions

Cultural and Intellectual Exchange

• Hanshi served as common language for East Asian literati
  • Facilitated intellectual exchange between Korea, China, and Japan
• Poetry exchanges during diplomatic missions strengthened cultural ties
  • Korean envoys often engaged in poetic competitions with Chinese counterparts
• Circulation of poetry collections and anthologies spread new ideas and styles
  • Works of prominent poets widely read and emulated across social classes

Political and Social Commentary

• Hanshi used as subtle means of expressing political criticism or social commentary
  • Allegorical nature of poetry allowed for veiled critiques of rulers or policies
• Poems commemorating historical events or praising virtuous officials common
  • Served to reinforce cultural values and political ideals
• Personal frustrations or disappointments often expressed through nature imagery
  • Falling leaves or withering flowers metaphors for career setbacks or political exile

Spiritual and Philosophical Expression

• Buddhist themes integrated into Hanshi creating unique syncretic tradition
  • Concepts of impermanence and enlightenment explored through poetic imagery
• Neo-Confucian philosophy increasingly influential in late Goryeo Hanshi
  • Poems exploring concepts of moral cultivation and social harmony
• Daoist elements also present particularly in nature-themed poetry
  • Ideas of harmony with natural world and retreat from worldly affairs