7.3 Temples and their architectural elements

Greek temples were architectural marvels, blending form and function to honor the gods. These structures featured distinct elements like columns, pediments, and friezes, each playing a crucial role in the overall design and religious significance.

The evolution of temple architecture saw the development of three main orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each order had unique characteristics, from the sturdy Doric columns to the ornate Corinthian capitals, reflecting changing artistic tastes and cultural values.

Greek Temple Architecture

Main Architectural Elements

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• Greek temples were typically rectangular structures with a colonnade of columns surrounding a central chamber called the cella, which housed a statue of the deity
• The front and rear ends of the temple roof were decorated with triangular pediments, which often featured sculpted figures depicting mythological scenes (Parthenon pediments) or battles (Temple of Aphaia pediments)
• Above the columns, a horizontal entablature consisted of an architrave (lower beam), frieze (middle section often decorated with reliefs or sculptures), and cornice (upper projecting molding)
• The frieze could be divided into metopes (rectangular panels) and triglyphs (vertical bands with three divisions) in the Doric order, or feature a continuous sculptural band (Parthenon frieze) in the Ionic order
• The roof of the temple was typically sloped and covered with ceramic tiles, with decorative acroteria (sculptures) at the corners and peak (Nike Temple acroteria)
• Temples often had a stereobate (stepped platform) as a base, with the uppermost step called the stylobate, upon which the columns rested

Additional Temple Features

• Some temples featured an adyton, a restricted inner sanctum accessible only to priests or priestesses, located behind the cella (Temple of Apollo at Didyma)
• Larger temples might have a double colonnade, with a second row of columns inside the outer colonnade (Temple of Apollo at Corinth)
• The pronaos, or front porch, was the space between the cella and the front colonnade, often featuring a set of columns in antis (set between the projecting walls of the cella)
• The opisthodomos, or rear porch, was a similar space at the back of the temple, sometimes used for storing valuable offerings or sacred objects (Parthenon opisthodomos)

Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Orders

Characteristics of the Doric Order

• The Doric order, the earliest and simplest, featured sturdy, fluted columns with no base, plain capitals, and a frieze divided into metopes and triglyphs
• Doric columns had a height-to-diameter ratio of about 4:1 to 6:1, giving them a solid, masculine appearance
• The Doric entablature was typically divided into a plain architrave, a frieze with alternating metopes and triglyphs, and a cornice with mutules (flat projecting blocks)
• Examples of Doric temples include the Parthenon in Athens and the Temple of Hephaestus in the Athenian Agora

Characteristics of the Ionic Order

• The Ionic order, developed later in Ionia, had slimmer, fluted columns with decorative bases and scroll-shaped capitals, as well as a continuous frieze
• Ionic columns were more slender, with height-to-diameter ratios of 8:1 to 10:1, giving them a more elegant, feminine appearance
• The Ionic entablature featured a three-part architrave, a continuous frieze (often decorated with relief sculptures), and a cornice with dentils (tooth-like projections)
• Examples of Ionic temples include the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acropolis and the Temple of Athena Nike

Characteristics of the Corinthian Order

• The Corinthian order, the most ornate and latest to develop, featured slender, fluted columns with elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves and scrolls
• Corinthian columns were the most slender, with height-to-diameter ratios similar to the Ionic order
• The Corinthian entablature was similar to the Ionic, with a three-part architrave, continuous frieze, and a cornice with modillions (bracket-like ornaments)
• Examples of Corinthian temples include the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens and the Tholos of Epidaurus

Temples in Ancient Greece

Religious and Cultural Significance

• Temples served as the dwelling places of the gods and goddesses, housing their cult statues and serving as a focus for religious rituals and festivities
• Worshippers gathered at temples to offer prayers, sacrifices (animal sacrifices), and gifts (votive offerings) to the deities, seeking their favor and protection
• Temples also functioned as treasuries, storing valuable offerings and dedications from individuals and city-states (Parthenon treasury)
• The construction and maintenance of temples were often financed by the city-state or wealthy patrons, demonstrating their piety, prestige, and power

Role in Religious Practices

• Temples were not typically used for congregational worship; instead, most religious ceremonies took place outside the temple, with only priests and priestesses allowed inside the cella
• During festivals and religious events, processions would often begin or end at the temple, with participants carrying sacred objects or offerings (Panathenaic procession)
• Some temples were associated with specific deities and their mythologies, such as the Temple of Athena Nike (associated with Athena's role as a goddess of victory) or the Erechtheion (linked to the mythical kings of Athens)
• Oracles, such as the famous Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, were often housed within temple complexes, with the temple serving as a focal point for the prophetic activities

Artistic and Architectural Expression

• The architectural grandeur and artistic embellishments of temples reflected the importance of religion in ancient Greek society and the desire to honor the gods with the finest craftsmanship and materials
• Temples were often decorated with elaborate sculptural programs, including pediment sculptures, frieze reliefs, and freestanding statues (Parthenon sculptures)
• The use of high-quality materials, such as marble (Pentelic marble) and bronze (Athena Promachos statue), demonstrated the wealth and dedication of the city-state or patron
• The proportions and design of temples were often based on mathematical ratios and principles, reflecting the ancient Greek belief in the importance of harmony and balance (golden ratio)

Evolution of Temple Design

Early Developments (8th to 6th Centuries BCE)

• Early Greek temples, such as those from the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, were often constructed with wood and mud brick, with terracotta decorations and a thatched or flat clay roof
• The introduction of stone masonry in the 6th century BCE allowed for the construction of more durable and monumental temples, with the earliest examples built in the Doric order (Temple of Hera at Olympia)
• The development of the Ionic order in the 6th century BCE, particularly in Ionia and the Aegean islands, introduced a more elegant and decorative style of temple architecture (Temple of Artemis at Ephesus)

Classical Innovations (5th to 4th Centuries BCE)

• Advances in construction techniques, such as the use of metal clamps and dowels to join stone blocks, allowed for larger and more complex temple designs (Parthenon construction techniques)
• The Late Classical period (4th century BCE) saw the emergence of the Corinthian order and a trend towards more elaborate and ornate temple designs, as exemplified by the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens
• Some temples began to incorporate multiple orders or experiment with innovative spatial arrangements, such as the Erechtheion with its Ionic and Caryatid porches

Hellenistic Developments (Late 4th to 1st Centuries BCE)

• Hellenistic temples, built from the late 4th to the 1st century BCE, often incorporated elements from multiple orders and featured more dramatic sculptural decoration and innovative spatial arrangements (Temple of Apollo at Didyma)
• The use of concrete in the Hellenistic period allowed for the construction of larger, more complex structures with vaulted ceilings and domes, such as the Pantheon in Rome (although this is a Roman temple, it demonstrates the influence of Greek architecture on later periods)
• Hellenistic temples sometimes incorporated more elaborate sculptural programs, with a greater emphasis on narrative scenes and dynastic or historical themes (Pergamon Altar frieze)
• The spread of Greek culture during the Hellenistic period led to the construction of Greek-style temples in regions beyond the Greek mainland, such as Egypt (Temple of Horus at Edfu) and Anatolia (Temple of Artemis at Sardis)