1.2 Independence Movements in Spanish America

The Spanish American independence movements were a series of revolutions that shook the Americas in the early 19th century. Sparked by the Napoleonic Wars and growing tensions between colonial-born criollos and Spanish-born peninsulares, these uprisings reshaped the political landscape of Latin America.

Key figures like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led military campaigns against Spanish rule, resulting in the formation of new nations. The establishment of juntas and the Treaty of Córdoba marked crucial steps towards independence, while the creation and dissolution of Gran Colombia highlighted the challenges of nation-building.

Key Figures in Spanish American Independence

Simón Bolívar's Role in the Independence Movements

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• Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a pivotal role in the Latin American independence movement against the Spanish Empire
• Led revolutionary forces in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, which were named after him
• Fought in over 100 battles for the cause of South American independence
• Became the first president of Gran Colombia (1819-1830), a federation that included much of northern South America

José de San Martín's Contributions to Independence

• José de San Martín was an Argentine general and the primary leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire
• Fought against the Spanish in the Argentine War of Independence (1810-1818) and the Chilean War of Independence (1808-1826)
• Led an army across the Andes Mountains from Argentina to Chile, a strategic move that helped secure Chile's independence
• Proclaimed the independence of Peru in 1821 and became the country's Protector

Causes of Independence Movements

Impact of the Napoleonic Wars on Spanish America

• The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) led to the weakening of the Spanish Empire as Spain was occupied by French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte
• The capture of Spanish King Ferdinand VII during the Peninsular War created a power vacuum in the Spanish colonies
• The wars disrupted the political and economic stability of the Spanish Empire, leading to increased discontent in the colonies
• The spread of Enlightenment ideas during this period also contributed to the growing desire for independence among Spanish Americans

Tensions between Peninsulares and Criollos

• Peninsulares were Spanish-born individuals living in the Americas who held most of the political, military, and religious power in the colonies
• Criollos were descendants of Spanish settlers born in the Americas who were often excluded from high-level positions in the colonial administration
• The unequal treatment and lack of political representation of Criollos fueled resentment towards the Peninsulares and the Spanish Crown
• Criollos increasingly sought greater autonomy and eventually independence from Spain as a means to gain control over their political and economic destinies

Political Developments

Formation of Juntas in Spanish America

• Juntas were local governing councils that emerged in Spanish America in response to the political crisis caused by the Napoleonic Wars
• These councils claimed to rule in the name of the captured Spanish king Ferdinand VII and sought to maintain the sovereignty of the Spanish Crown in the Americas
• The establishment of juntas marked a shift towards self-governance and laid the groundwork for the eventual independence movements
• Notable juntas included the Junta of Caracas (Venezuela, 1810) and the Junta of Buenos Aires (Argentina, 1810)

Wars of Independence in Spanish America

• The Wars of Independence in Spanish America were a series of military campaigns and conflicts that led to the independence of many Spanish colonies between 1808 and 1833
• These wars were fought between the Spanish royalists and the Latin American revolutionaries, who sought to establish independent nations
• Key conflicts included the Venezuelan War of Independence (1811-1823), the Argentine War of Independence (1810-1818), and the Peruvian War of Independence (1811-1824)
• The wars resulted in the emergence of new independent states, such as Gran Colombia, Peru, and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina)

Treaty of Córdoba and Mexican Independence

• The Treaty of Córdoba was an agreement signed on August 24, 1821, between the Mexican revolutionary Agustín de Iturbide and the last Spanish viceroy, Juan O'Donojú
• The treaty effectively granted Mexico independence from Spain, establishing the First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide
• The treaty was a culmination of the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821), which had been fought between the Mexican revolutionaries and Spanish royalist forces
• Although the Spanish Crown later repudiated the treaty, it marked a significant step towards Mexico's independence and set the stage for the country's future political development

New Nations

Formation and Dissolution of Gran Colombia

• Gran Colombia was a federation of states that existed from 1819 to 1831, encompassing much of northern South America, including present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama
• The federation was established following the successful military campaigns of Simón Bolívar against the Spanish Empire during the Latin American Wars of Independence
• Bolívar became the first president of Gran Colombia and sought to create a strong, centralized government that could withstand internal and external threats
• However, regional differences, political instability, and power struggles among the member states led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1831
• The dissolution resulted in the formation of the independent nations of New Granada (present-day Colombia and Panama), Venezuela, and Ecuador