8.1 Theories and Definitions of Populism

Populism in Latin America has taken many forms, from charismatic leaders promising redistribution to right-wing nationalists. It often emerges during crises, appealing to "the people" against "elites" with emotional, polarizing rhetoric. Populists offer simple solutions to complex problems, mobilizing marginalized groups.

Theories of populism range from economic to cultural approaches. Definitions vary, emphasizing leadership, discourse, or ideology. Latin America has seen classical populists like Perón, neopopulists like Fujimori, and contemporary left and right-wing populists, each shaped by the region's unique historical and political context.

Populism as a Phenomenon

Key Characteristics and Manifestations

• Populism is a political strategy that appeals to the general public by claiming to represent the interests of "the people" against the "elite" or "establishment"
• Employs a rhetoric that is highly emotional, moralistic, and polarizing, often framing political issues as a battle between good and evil
• Can manifest in various ideological forms, such as left-wing populism, which emphasizes economic redistribution and social justice, and right-wing populism, which focuses on nationalism, xenophobia, and cultural conservatism (Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil)

Emergence and Leadership

• Populist movements often emerge during times of economic, social, or political crisis, capitalizing on public discontent and offering simplistic solutions to complex problems
• Key characteristics of populism include:
  • Charismatic leadership that directly communicates with the masses
  • Anti-elitism and a focus on the collective identity of "the people"
• Populist leaders tend to employ a rhetoric that is highly emotional, moralistic, and polarizing, often framing political issues as a battle between good and evil

Theoretical Approaches to Populism in Latin America

Economic and Political Perspectives

• The economic approach views populism as a result of the region's uneven economic development and the challenges of modernization, with populist leaders promising redistribution and state intervention to address social inequalities
• The political approach emphasizes the role of charismatic leadership and the mobilization of marginalized groups in the rise of populist movements, often in opposition to traditional political parties and institutions

Cultural, Discursive, and Historical-Structural Approaches

• The cultural approach highlights the importance of collective identities, such as nationalism or ethnic solidarity, in shaping populist discourse and mobilization in Latin America
• The discursive approach focuses on the rhetorical strategies employed by populist leaders to construct a narrative of "the people" versus "the elite" and to legitimize their political projects
• The historical-structural approach situates populism within the broader context of Latin America's colonial legacy, dependent development, and the challenges of nation-building and democratization

Defining Populism: Strengths vs Weaknesses

Classical and Economic Definitions

• Classical definitions, such as those proposed by Gino Germani and Torcuato di Tella, emphasize the multi-class nature of populist movements and their role in the transition from traditional to modern societies, but may overlook the diversity of populist experiences in the region
• Economic definitions, such as those advanced by Rudiger Dornbusch and Sebastian Edwards, focus on populism as a set of unsustainable economic policies, but may neglect the political and cultural dimensions of the phenomenon

Political, Discursive, and Minimal Definitions

• Political definitions, such as Kurt Weyland's, highlight the centrality of charismatic leadership and the unmediated relationship between the leader and the masses, but may downplay the role of ideology and social movements in populist mobilization
• Discursive definitions, such as those proposed by Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, emphasize the construction of popular identities through political discourse, but may underestimate the importance of institutional and structural factors in shaping populist outcomes
• Minimal definitions, such as Cas Mudde's, identify populism as a thin-centered ideology that divides society into "the pure people" and "the corrupt elite," allowing for the study of populism across different contexts, but may sacrifice analytical depth for conceptual clarity

Populism in Latin America: History vs Present

Classical and Neopopulist Experiences

• Classical populist experiences, such as Juan Perón in Argentina (1946-1955, 1973-1974) and Getúlio Vargas in Brazil (1930-1945, 1951-1954), combined charismatic leadership, state interventionism, and the incorporation of popular sectors into the political system
• The rise of neoliberalism in the 1980s and 1990s led to the emergence of neopopulist leaders, such as Alberto Fujimori in Peru and Carlos Menem in Argentina, who combined populist rhetoric with market-oriented reforms and the weakening of democratic institutions

Contemporary Left-Wing and Right-Wing Populism

• The "pink tide" of the early 21st century saw the rise of left-wing populist governments, such as Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Evo Morales in Bolivia, and Rafael Correa in Ecuador, which promoted social inclusion, regional integration, and anti-imperialist discourse
• The recent wave of right-wing populism, exemplified by Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil and Nayib Bukele in El Salvador, combines conservative social values, tough-on-crime policies, and a rejection of traditional political elites and institutions
• The COVID-19 pandemic has posed new challenges and opportunities for populist leaders in the region, as they navigate the health crisis, economic recession, and public discontent with government responses