Reinforcement and punishment are key tools in behavior. They can increase or decrease the likelihood of actions recurring. Understanding these concepts is crucial for grasping how we learn and modify our behavior over time.
Positive and strengthen behaviors, while positive and weaken them. These techniques, along with various and methods, form the foundation of principles.
Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
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involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future (giving a dog a treat for sitting)
Increases the frequency of the preceding behavior by delivering a rewarding consequence
Negative Reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again (taking an aspirin to relieve a headache)
Increases the frequency of the preceding behavior by removing an aversive consequence
Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement strengthen the behavior that precedes them
Positive and Negative Punishment
involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again (scolding a child for running into the street)
Decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior by delivering an aversive consequence
Negative Punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again (taking away a teenager's phone for breaking curfew)
Decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior by removing a rewarding consequence
Both Positive and Negative Punishment weaken the behavior that precedes them
Reinforcers
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers are stimuli that are inherently rewarding and do not require learning to be effective (food, water, sex)
Satisfy biological needs and are often species-specific
Secondary Reinforcers are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers (money, grades, praise)
Also known as conditioned reinforcers, they are learned through experience and can vary across individuals and cultures
Secondary reinforcers allow for greater flexibility in reinforcement schedules and can maintain behavior over longer periods of time
Schedules of Reinforcement
involves reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs
Most effective for establishing new behaviors but can lead to rapid if reinforcement is discontinued
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement involves reinforcing a behavior only some of the time
Includes fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules
Behaviors reinforced on partial schedules are more resistant to extinction than those reinforced continuously
Variable schedules generally produce steadier rates of responding than fixed schedules
Behavior Modification Techniques
Extinction and Shaping
Extinction involves withholding reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior, causing the behavior to decrease in frequency and eventually disappear
Can lead to a temporary increase in the behavior (extinction burst) before it decreases
Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior until the desired behavior is achieved
Begins by reinforcing behaviors that resemble the target behavior and gradually requiring closer approximations (teaching a rat to press a lever by first reinforcing approaching the lever, then touching it, then pressing it)
Chaining, Prompting, and Fading
involves linking individual behaviors together to form a complex sequence (brushing teeth: picking up toothbrush, applying toothpaste, brushing, rinsing)
Can involve forward chaining (starting with the first behavior in the sequence) or backward chaining (starting with the last behavior)
involves providing cues or assistance to help an individual perform a behavior (physically guiding a child's hand to show them how to write letters)
Prompts can be visual, auditory, or physical and should be gradually faded as the behavior is learned
involves gradually removing prompts or assistance as an individual becomes more proficient at a behavior
Helps transfer control of the behavior from the prompt to the naturally occurring stimuli in the environment