10.4 Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism connects environmental issues with feminist concerns, highlighting how the exploitation of nature and women are intertwined. This perspective emerged in the 1970s, drawing from both feminist theory and environmental activism to challenge patriarchal systems.

Key principles of ecofeminism include recognizing the interconnectedness of oppression, critiquing patriarchy, valuing nature, and emphasizing diversity. These ideas have influenced literary criticism, activism, and environmental policy, sparking debates about gender, nature, and social justice.

Origins of ecofeminism

Emergence in 1970s

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• Arose in the context of second-wave feminism and growing environmental awareness
• Drew connections between the exploitation of women and the exploitation of nature
• Françoise d'Eaubonne coined the term "ecofeminism" in her 1974 book "Le Féminisme ou la Mort"

Influence of feminism

• Built upon feminist critiques of patriarchy and gendered oppression
• Incorporated insights from various feminist theories (radical, socialist, cultural)
• Emphasized the importance of women's experiences and perspectives in understanding environmental issues

Roots in environmental movement

• Grew out of concerns about pollution, resource depletion, and ecological destruction
• Influenced by the work of Rachel Carson (Silent Spring) and other early environmentalists
• Connected environmental degradation to larger systems of domination and exploitation

Key principles

Interconnectedness of oppression

• Recognizes that the oppression of women and the domination of nature are linked
• Argues that patriarchy, racism, classism, and other forms of oppression are interconnected
• Seeks to challenge and dismantle all systems of domination and hierarchy

Critique of patriarchy

• Identifies patriarchy as a root cause of both women's oppression and environmental destruction
• Critiques masculine values of domination, control, and exploitation
• Advocates for a shift towards more feminine values of care, nurturing, and cooperation

Valuing of nature

• Challenges the view of nature as a resource to be exploited for human gain
• Recognizes the intrinsic value of nature and the importance of biodiversity
• Encourages a more harmonious and respectful relationship between humans and the natural world

Emphasis on diversity

• Celebrates the diversity of life and the importance of difference
• Rejects universalizing narratives that erase the experiences of marginalized groups
• Advocates for an inclusive and intersectional approach to environmentalism

Theoretical frameworks

Social ecology

• Developed by Murray Bookchin, emphasizes the social roots of environmental problems
• Argues that ecological issues are fundamentally linked to social and political hierarchies
• Calls for a restructuring of society along more decentralized, democratic, and ecological lines

Deep ecology

• Pioneered by Arne Naess, emphasizes the intrinsic value of all living beings
• Challenges anthropocentrism and advocates for a biocentric worldview
• Calls for a radical transformation of human consciousness and a recognition of our ecological interdependence

Spiritual ecofeminism

• Draws on various spiritual traditions (paganism, indigenous spiritualities, goddess worship)
• Emphasizes the sacredness of nature and the importance of spiritual connection to the earth
• Critiques patriarchal religions that devalue the body, emotion, and the feminine

Materialist ecofeminism

• Grounded in a materialist analysis of capitalism, colonialism, and patriarchy
• Examines the material conditions that shape women's lives and their relationships to the environment
• Advocates for a socialist and anti-imperialist ecofeminism that challenges economic and political structures of domination

Major theorists

Françoise d'Eaubonne

• French feminist who coined the term "ecofeminism" in 1974
• Argued that the liberation of women and the preservation of the environment were interconnected struggles
• Called for a new "feminine revolution" to challenge patriarchy and ecological destruction

Carolyn Merchant

• American ecofeminist philosopher and historian of science
• Author of "The Death of Nature" (1980), which examined the historical roots of the domination of women and nature
• Critiqued the mechanistic worldview of modern science and advocated for a more organic, holistic perspective

Vandana Shiva

• Indian scholar, activist, and eco-feminist
• Critiques the impact of globalization, industrial agriculture, and intellectual property rights on women and the environment
• Advocates for a return to traditional, sustainable farming practices and the protection of indigenous knowledge

Val Plumwood

• Australian philosopher and ecofeminist theorist
• Author of "Feminism and the Mastery of Nature" (1993), which critiqued dualistic thinking and the logic of domination
• Called for a reconceptualization of the human-nature relationship based on mutuality, respect, and ecological embeddedness

Ecofeminist literary criticism

Challenging anthropocentrism

• Questions human-centered approaches to literature that privilege human characters and concerns
• Examines the ways in which literature perpetuates or challenges anthropocentric worldviews
• Explores the agency and subjectivity of non-human nature in literary texts

Critiquing dualistic thinking

• Identifies and challenges binary oppositions (culture/nature, male/female, reason/emotion) in literature
• Examines how these dualisms are used to justify the domination of women and nature
• Advocates for a more fluid, non-binary understanding of identity and difference

Celebrating nature in literature

• Highlights literary works that depict nature in positive, affirming ways
• Examines how literature can foster a sense of connection to and appreciation for the natural world
• Explores the use of nature imagery and metaphor as a means of challenging patriarchal values

Analyzing gendered landscapes

• Examines how landscapes are gendered in literature, with wilderness often depicted as feminine and civilization as masculine
• Explores how these gendered associations are used to justify the conquest and exploitation of nature
• Considers how women's relationships to particular landscapes are shaped by their social and cultural positions

Ecofeminism vs deep ecology

Similarities in environmental focus

• Both challenge anthropocentrism and advocate for the intrinsic value of nature
• Both call for a radical re-thinking of the human-nature relationship
• Both critique Western dualistic thinking and advocate for a more holistic, ecological worldview

Differences in social justice emphasis

• Ecofeminism places a stronger emphasis on social justice and the interconnectedness of oppression
• Deep ecology tends to prioritize the intrinsic value of nature over human social and political concerns
• Ecofeminism critiques deep ecology for its potential to erase differences and gloss over issues of race, class, and gender

Critiques of ecofeminism

Accusations of essentialism

• Some critics argue that ecofeminism relies on essentialist notions of gender (i.e. women as inherently closer to nature)
• Ecofeminists have responded by emphasizing the socially constructed nature of gender and the diversity of women's experiences
• Many ecofeminists reject essentialism and advocate for a more nuanced, intersectional understanding of identity

Debates over universality

• Critics question whether ecofeminism can speak to the experiences of all women, given differences in race, class, culture, etc.
• Ecofeminists have emphasized the importance of local, situated knowledges and the need for a diversity of voices
• Some argue for a "strategic essentialism" that acknowledges common ground while still attending to difference

Intersectional challenges

• Ecofeminism has been criticized for not fully addressing issues of race, class, and other forms of oppression
• Black, indigenous, and postcolonial feminists have challenged white ecofeminists to be more attentive to the intersections of gender, race, and colonialism
• Ecofeminism has increasingly embraced intersectionality and sought to build coalitions across different social justice movements

Applications beyond literature

Ecofeminist activism

• Ecofeminists have been involved in a range of activist movements (anti-nuclear, peace, environmental justice)
• Ecofeminist principles have informed protests against deforestation, industrial pollution, and the displacement of indigenous communities
• Ecofeminists have also worked to create alternative, sustainable communities and ways of living

Influence on environmental policy

• Ecofeminist ideas have shaped debates around issues like climate change, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development
• Ecofeminists have advocated for more participatory, grassroots approaches to environmental decision-making
• Ecofeminist principles have been incorporated into international agreements like the UN's Convention on Biological Diversity

Ecofeminist art and spirituality

• Ecofeminist artists have used a variety of media (painting, sculpture, performance) to celebrate nature and challenge patriarchal culture
• Ecofeminist spiritualities have drawn on goddess traditions, earth-based religions, and indigenous practices
• Ecofeminist art and spirituality seek to foster a sense of connection to the earth and to challenge dominant cultural narratives

Future directions

Integrating queer ecology

• Queer ecology examines the intersections of sexuality, gender, and the environment
• Ecofeminists are increasingly drawing on queer theory to challenge heteronormativity and the naturalization of gender binaries
• Queer ecology offers new ways of understanding the complexity and fluidity of identity and desire in relation to nature

Engaging with postcolonial theory

• Postcolonial theory examines the ongoing impacts of colonialism and imperialism on people and environments
• Ecofeminists are increasingly engaging with postcolonial thought to challenge Western dualisms and to center the experiences of women in the Global South
• Postcolonial ecofeminism highlights the ways in which environmental degradation is linked to histories of colonialism and racism

Responding to climate change

• Climate change is an urgent environmental and social justice issue that disproportionately impacts women and marginalized communities
• Ecofeminists are working to develop intersectional, feminist responses to climate change that address issues of gender, race, class, and colonialism
• Ecofeminist perspectives emphasize the need for a just transition to a low-carbon economy that prioritizes the needs of the most vulnerable