🥽Literary Theory and Criticism Unit 2 – Structuralism & Semiotics in Literary Theory

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Structuralism emphasizes the underlying structures and patterns within a text rather than its content or historical context
• Semiotics studies signs and symbols and how they create meaning within a system of communication
• Langue refers to the abstract, systematic rules and conventions of a signifying system while parole is the concrete instances of language used in speech or writing
• Syntagmatic relationships are the linear, sequential arrangements of signs while paradigmatic relationships are the associations between signs that can be substituted for each other
• Binary oppositions are pairs of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning (nature/culture, raw/cooked) and can generate meaning in a text
  • Claude Lévi-Strauss argued that binary oppositions form the basis of human thought and culture
• Narratology is the study of the structure and function of narrative, focusing on elements such as plot, character, and point of view
• The linguistic sign consists of the signifier (the form or sound) and the signified (the concept or meaning) with an arbitrary relationship between them

Historical Context and Origins

• Structuralism emerged in the early 20th century as a response to the prevailing focus on the author's biography and historical context in literary criticism
• It drew on the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure who argued that language is a system of signs and that the meaning of signs is determined by their relationships to other signs within the system
• Structuralism was influenced by Russian Formalism which emphasized the formal properties of literary texts over their content or social context
• The anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss applied structuralist principles to the study of myths, kinship systems, and other cultural phenomena
  • He argued that all human cultures share certain universal structures of thought based on binary oppositions
• In the 1960s, structuralism became a dominant paradigm in French intellectual life, influencing fields such as anthropology, psychoanalysis, and literary criticism
• The rise of poststructuralism in the 1970s challenged many of the assumptions of structuralism, emphasizing the instability and multiplicity of meaning in texts

Major Thinkers and Their Contributions

• Ferdinand de Saussure laid the foundation for structuralism with his Course in General Linguistics which distinguished between langue and parole and defined the linguistic sign as the union of signifier and signified
• Claude Lévi-Strauss applied structuralist principles to anthropology, analyzing myths and kinship systems in terms of their underlying binary oppositions
• Roman Jakobson developed a model of linguistic communication based on six functions (referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalingual, poetic) and emphasized the poetic function of language
• Roland Barthes extended structuralist analysis to a wide range of cultural phenomena, from fashion to food, and developed the concept of the "death of the author"
  • He argued that the meaning of a text is not determined by the author's intention but by the codes and conventions of language itself
• Algirdas Julien Greimas developed a complex model of narrative structure based on the concept of the actant, a fundamental role that a character can play in a story
• Tzvetan Todorov coined the term "narratology" and analyzed the structure of literary genres such as the fantastic and the detective story
• Julia Kristeva introduced the concept of intertextuality, arguing that all texts are shaped by their relationships to other texts and to the broader cultural context

Core Principles of Structuralism

• Structuralism focuses on the underlying systems and structures that govern the production of meaning in a text rather than its content or historical context
• It views language as a system of signs, with each sign deriving its meaning from its relationship to other signs within the system
• Structuralists seek to identify the deep structures or codes that underlie all cultural phenomena, from literature to fashion to food
• Binary oppositions are seen as fundamental to human thought and culture, generating meaning through the contrast between opposed terms
• Structuralism emphasizes the synchronic study of a text, analyzing its structure at a given moment in time, rather than the diachronic study of its historical development
  • This approach has been criticized for neglecting the role of history and social context in shaping the meaning of texts
• Structuralism challenges the idea of the author as the source of a text's meaning, instead focusing on the impersonal codes and conventions of language itself
• It aims to develop a scientific approach to the study of literature and culture, using linguistic models and formal analysis to uncover the underlying structures of texts

Semiotic Theory and Its Applications

• Semiotics, or the study of signs and sign systems, is closely related to structuralism and shares many of its key concepts and methods
• The semiotic theory of Charles Sanders Peirce distinguishes between three types of signs: icons (which resemble their object), indexes (which are causally connected to their object), and symbols (which have an arbitrary or conventional relationship to their object)
• Umberto Eco applied semiotic theory to a wide range of cultural phenomena, from literature to advertising to architecture, analyzing how they create meaning through the use of signs and codes
• Roland Barthes used semiotics to analyze the "myths" or ideological messages embedded in popular culture, such as the portrayal of wine in French advertising
  • He argued that these myths serve to naturalize and perpetuate the dominant social order
• Semiotic analysis has been applied to fields such as film studies, analyzing how cinematic techniques such as camera angles and editing create meaning
• In the field of cultural studies, semiotic theory has been used to analyze how subcultures use signs and symbols to create distinct identities and resist dominant cultural codes
• Semiotic theory has also been influential in the study of visual art, examining how paintings and sculptures create meaning through the use of signs and symbols

Analyzing Literature Through Structuralist Lens

• Structuralist literary criticism focuses on the underlying structures and patterns within a text, such as its narrative structure, character types, and symbolic oppositions
• It seeks to identify the "grammar" of literature, the set of rules and conventions that govern the production of meaning in literary texts
• Structuralist critics often use linguistic models to analyze literature, examining how the elements of a text (such as words, sentences, and paragraphs) relate to each other and create meaning
• They may also use the concept of binary oppositions to analyze the tensions and conflicts within a text (good/evil, nature/culture)
• Structuralist readings often focus on the mythic or archetypal dimensions of a text, examining how it reproduces universal patterns of human thought and experience
  • For example, a structuralist reading of a fairy tale might focus on how it reproduces the archetypal pattern of the hero's journey
• Structuralist critics may also examine how a text's meaning is shaped by its relationship to other texts and to the broader cultural context, a concept known as intertextuality
• However, structuralist readings have been criticized for their tendency to reduce texts to abstract patterns and neglect their historical and social context

Criticisms and Limitations

• Structuralism has been criticized for its ahistorical approach, neglecting the role of history and social context in shaping the meaning of texts
• It has also been accused of reducing complex cultural phenomena to simple binary oppositions and ignoring the diversity and complexity of human experience
• Poststructuralist thinkers such as Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault challenged the idea of stable, universal structures underlying language and culture, emphasizing instead the instability and multiplicity of meaning
  • Derrida's concept of "deconstruction" sought to uncover the contradictions and aporias within texts, undermining the structuralist notion of a stable, coherent meaning
• Structuralism's focus on the impersonal codes and conventions of language has been criticized for neglecting the role of the individual subject and the creative process in the production of meaning
• Its scientific aspirations have also been questioned, with critics arguing that it relies on reductive and simplistic models that fail to capture the complexity of literary and cultural phenomena
• Some critics have argued that structuralism's emphasis on binary oppositions and universal structures reinforces Western cultural biases and neglects the diversity of non-Western cultures
• Structuralism's influence has waned in recent decades, with many scholars turning to poststructuralist, deconstructionist, and other theoretical approaches that emphasize the instability and multiplicity of meaning

Impact on Literary Studies and Beyond

• Structuralism had a profound impact on literary studies in the 1960s and 1970s, introducing new methods of formal analysis and challenging traditional approaches to literature
• It influenced the development of narratology, or the study of narrative structure, which has become an important subfield of literary studies
• Structuralist concepts such as binary oppositions and the linguistic sign have been widely adopted in other fields, such as anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies
• In the field of anthropology, structuralism led to a new emphasis on the study of kinship systems, myths, and other cultural phenomena in terms of their underlying structures and patterns
• Structuralist ideas have also been influential in the development of cognitive science and artificial intelligence, with researchers using linguistic models to study the structure of human thought and language
• However, the influence of structuralism has declined in recent decades, with many scholars turning to poststructuralist and other theoretical approaches
  • These approaches often build on structuralist concepts and methods while challenging its assumptions about the stability and universality of meaning
• Despite its limitations and criticisms, structuralism remains an important moment in the history of literary theory and continues to shape the way we think about language, culture, and the human mind