2.7 Ferdinand de Saussure

Ferdinand de Saussure's work in linguistics laid the foundation for structuralism, revolutionizing how we understand language and culture. His focus on language as a system of signs and relationships shifted the field from historical studies to analyzing underlying structures.

Saussure introduced key concepts like langue vs. parole, synchronic vs. diachronic analysis, and the arbitrary nature of linguistic signs. His ideas influenced various fields, including literary theory, shaping formalism and poststructuralism.

Foundations of structuralism

• Structuralism is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the study of underlying structures and patterns in language, culture, and society
• Saussure's work in linguistics laid the groundwork for structuralism by focusing on the systematic nature of language and the relationships between linguistic elements
• Structuralism had a significant impact on various fields, including anthropology, literary theory, and philosophy, by providing a new approach to analyzing and understanding cultural phenomena

Influence on linguistics

• Saussure's ideas revolutionized the field of linguistics by shifting the focus from historical and comparative studies to the synchronic analysis of language as a system
• He introduced the concept of the linguistic sign, consisting of the signifier (the form or sound) and the signified (the meaning or concept), which became a fundamental principle in structuralist linguistics
• Saussure's emphasis on the arbitrary nature of the linguistic sign and the importance of studying language as a system of differences influenced subsequent developments in linguistics, such as phonology and morphology

Key concepts

Langue vs parole

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• Langue refers to the abstract, systematic rules and conventions of a language that are shared by a community of speakers (grammar, vocabulary)
• Parole, on the other hand, is the individual, concrete instances of language use, such as specific utterances or speech acts (everyday conversations, written texts)
• Saussure argued that the primary object of linguistic study should be langue, as it represents the underlying structure of language, while parole is more variable and subject to individual variation

Synchronic vs diachronic

• Synchronic analysis involves studying a language as a static system at a particular point in time, focusing on the relationships and differences between linguistic elements within that system (contemporary French)
• Diachronic analysis, in contrast, examines the historical development and changes of a language over time, tracing the evolution of linguistic forms and meanings (Old French to Modern French)
• Saussure emphasized the importance of synchronic analysis in understanding the structure of language, arguing that it should take precedence over diachronic studies

Syntagmatic vs associative relations

• Syntagmatic relations refer to the linear, sequential relationships between linguistic elements within a sentence or utterance (subject-verb-object order)
• Associative relations (later called paradigmatic relations) involve the substitution of linguistic elements with other elements that can occupy the same position in a sentence or paradigm (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
• Saussure argued that both syntagmatic and associative relations are crucial in understanding the structure and functioning of language, as they govern the combination and selection of linguistic elements

Semiology

Sign, signified, and signifier

• Saussure proposed the concept of the linguistic sign, which consists of two inseparable components: the signifier (the form or sound) and the signified (the meaning or concept)
• The relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary, meaning that there is no inherent or natural connection between the form of a word and its meaning (the word "tree" has no inherent connection to the concept of a tree)
• The value of a sign is determined by its differences and relationships with other signs within the linguistic system, rather than by any intrinsic properties

Arbitrariness of signs

• Saussure emphasized the arbitrary nature of the linguistic sign, arguing that the connection between the signifier and the signified is based on social convention rather than any natural or inherent link
• The arbitrariness of signs allows for the diversity of languages across cultures, as different languages can use different signifiers to represent the same signified (the concept of a tree is represented by different words in various languages)
• The arbitrary nature of signs also enables language to evolve and change over time, as the relationships between signifiers and signifieds can shift and new signs can be introduced

Legacy in literary theory

Impact on formalism

• Saussure's ideas had a significant influence on the development of formalism, a literary theory that focuses on the intrinsic features and structures of literary texts
• Formalists, such as Roman Jakobson and Viktor Shklovsky, applied Saussure's linguistic concepts to the study of literature, emphasizing the importance of analyzing the formal elements of a text (rhyme, meter, narrative structure) rather than its content or historical context
• The formalist approach to literature, inspired by Saussure's structuralism, sought to identify the underlying patterns and structures that govern the production and interpretation of literary works

Influence on poststructuralism

• Saussure's structuralist ideas also laid the foundation for the development of poststructuralism, a theoretical movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a critique and extension of structuralism
• Poststructuralists, such as Jacques Derrida and Roland Barthes, built upon Saussure's concepts of the sign and the arbitrary nature of language, but challenged the notion of stable and fixed meanings
• Derrida's concept of différance, which emphasizes the endless deferral and differing of meaning in language, is rooted in Saussure's idea of the linguistic sign as a system of differences
• Barthes' theory of the "death of the author" and the "birth of the reader" also draws on Saussure's emphasis on the structural and systemic nature of language, arguing that the meaning of a text is not determined by the author's intention but by the reader's interpretation within a broader cultural and linguistic context