7.4 Subaltern

Subaltern studies examine the experiences of marginalized groups in society, focusing on their struggles for representation and agency. This field challenges traditional power structures and gives voice to those often excluded from dominant narratives.

The concept of subalternity, originally developed by Antonio Gramsci, has been expanded by scholars like Gayatri Spivak to analyze postcolonial contexts. It explores how subordinate groups resist and subvert hegemonic power through everyday practices and counter-hegemonic movements.

Concept of subalternity

• Subalternity refers to the condition of being subordinated or oppressed within a hierarchical system of power relations
• The concept has been influential in postcolonial studies, cultural studies, and critical theory for analyzing marginalized groups and their struggles for representation and agency

Gramsci's original definition

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• Italian Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci coined the term "subaltern" in his Prison Notebooks (1929-1935) to refer to subordinate groups in society
• Gramsci used the term to describe the proletariat and peasantry in Italy who were excluded from the hegemonic power structures and lacked political representation
• For Gramsci, the subaltern classes needed to develop their own organic intellectuals and counter-hegemonic movements to challenge the dominant bourgeois culture

Spivak's reinterpretation

• Postcolonial theorist Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak expanded Gramsci's concept of the subaltern to include marginalized groups in the Global South, particularly in the context of British colonialism in India
• Spivak problematized the notion of a unified subaltern identity, arguing that the subaltern is heterogeneous and marked by differences of class, caste, gender, and ethnicity
• She emphasized the gendered nature of subalternity, focusing on the doubly marginalized position of subaltern women in colonial and postcolonial societies

Subaltern vs hegemony

• The subaltern is defined in opposition to the hegemonic power structures that dominate society, such as the state, the ruling class, and the dominant culture
• Hegemony refers to the ideological and cultural dominance of the ruling class, which is maintained through the consent of subordinate groups
• The subaltern, by contrast, is excluded from hegemonic power and often resists or subverts dominant ideologies and practices through everyday forms of resistance and counter-hegemonic movements

Postcolonial subaltern studies

• Subaltern studies emerged as a field of postcolonial scholarship in the 1980s, focusing on the history and politics of marginalized groups in the Global South
• The field has been influential in challenging Eurocentric narratives of history and giving voice to the experiences and struggles of subaltern groups

Indian Subaltern Studies group

• The Indian Subaltern Studies group was founded by historians Ranajit Guha and others in the 1980s to study the history of colonial India from the perspective of the subaltern classes
• The group challenged the elitist bias of nationalist historiography and focused on the agency and resistance of peasants, workers, and other marginalized groups in colonial India
• Key figures in the Indian Subaltern Studies group include Guha, Partha Chatterjee, Dipesh Chakrabarty, and Gyan Prakash

Latin American Subaltern Studies group

• The Latin American Subaltern Studies group was founded in the 1990s by scholars such as John Beverley, Ileana Rodríguez, and José Rabasa to study the history and politics of subaltern groups in Latin America
• The group drew on the insights of the Indian Subaltern Studies group but also engaged with the specific histories of colonialism, neocolonialism, and revolutionary struggles in Latin America
• Key themes in Latin American subaltern studies include the analysis of indigenous movements, peasant rebellions, and the politics of memory and testimony

Subaltern studies in other regions

• The insights of subaltern studies have been applied to the study of marginalized groups in other regions, such as Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia
• In African studies, scholars such as Mahmood Mamdani and Achille Mbembe have analyzed the legacies of colonialism and the struggles of subaltern groups in postcolonial African societies
• In Middle Eastern studies, scholars such as Saba Mahmood and Lila Abu-Lughod have studied the agency and resistance of subaltern women in Islamic societies
• In Southeast Asian studies, scholars such as James C. Scott and Benedict Anderson have analyzed the everyday forms of resistance and the politics of nationalism among subaltern groups

Representation of the subaltern

• The representation of the subaltern has been a central concern in postcolonial studies, raising questions about the possibilities and limitations of speaking for or about marginalized groups
• Postcolonial scholars have problematized the notion of authentic representation and emphasized the need for self-representation and the recognition of subaltern agency

Challenges of representation

• The representation of the subaltern is fraught with challenges, such as the risk of appropriation, misrepresentation, or silencing of subaltern voices
• Western intellectuals and institutions have often claimed to speak for the subaltern, reproducing colonial power relations and ignoring the diversity and complexity of subaltern experiences
• The subaltern is not a homogeneous or fixed identity, but is marked by differences of class, gender, ethnicity, and other social categories that complicate the politics of representation

Spivak's "Can the Subaltern Speak?"

• In her influential essay "Can the Subaltern Speak?" (1988), Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak interrogates the possibilities and limitations of representing the subaltern in Western academic discourse
• Spivak argues that the subaltern cannot speak in the sense of being heard or understood by the dominant culture, as their voices are always mediated by the discourses of power
• She critiques the tendency of Western intellectuals to romanticize or appropriate the subaltern as a source of authentic or revolutionary subjectivity, ignoring the complexities and contradictions of subaltern agency

Subaltern voice and agency

• Despite the challenges of representation, postcolonial scholars have emphasized the importance of recognizing and amplifying subaltern voices and agency
• Subaltern studies has focused on recovering the histories, narratives, and practices of resistance among marginalized groups, often through the use of oral histories, testimonies, and other forms of subaltern knowledge
• The recognition of subaltern agency involves a shift from seeing the subaltern as passive victims to active agents who negotiate, resist, and transform the conditions of their subordination

Subaltern identity and resistance

• The formation of subaltern identity and the practices of subaltern resistance have been central themes in postcolonial studies, challenging the notion of the subaltern as a passive or voiceless subject
• Subaltern identity is not a fixed or essential category, but is shaped by the intersections of class, gender, race, and other social categories, as well as by the specific histories and contexts of colonialism and postcoloniality

Subaltern consciousness

• Subaltern consciousness refers to the ways in which subaltern groups perceive and make sense of their subordinate position in society, as well as their aspirations for change and emancipation
• Gramsci argued that the subaltern classes needed to develop their own "good sense" or critical consciousness to challenge the hegemonic "common sense" of the ruling class
• Subaltern consciousness is not a pre-given or static essence, but is shaped by the dialectical interplay between the material conditions of subordination and the cultural and ideological forms of resistance

Everyday forms of resistance

• Subaltern resistance often takes the form of everyday practices of negotiation, subversion, and survival, rather than overt or organized political action
• James C. Scott has studied the "weapons of the weak" or the hidden transcripts of resistance among peasants and other subaltern groups, such as foot-dragging, dissimulation, and sabotage
• Everyday forms of resistance challenge the binary opposition between domination and resistance, showing how subaltern agency operates within and against the constraints of power

Subaltern and revolutionary potential

• Some postcolonial scholars have seen the subaltern as a potential agent of revolutionary change, capable of transforming the social and political order from below
• Frantz Fanon, for example, argued that the lumpenproletariat or the urban poor in colonial societies had a revolutionary potential that could be harnessed through the process of decolonization
• However, other scholars have cautioned against romanticizing the subaltern as a revolutionary subject, emphasizing the ambiguities and limitations of subaltern agency and the need for broader alliances and political strategies

Subaltern in literature and culture

• The representation of the subaltern in literature and culture has been a key concern in postcolonial studies, reflecting the politics of voice, agency, and resistance
• Postcolonial literature has sought to challenge the dominant narratives of colonialism and nationalism, and to give voice to the experiences and struggles of subaltern groups

Subaltern narratives and perspectives

• Subaltern narratives refer to the stories, testimonies, and perspectives of marginalized groups that have been excluded or silenced in dominant histories and cultures
• Examples of subaltern narratives include slave narratives, testimonios, and oral histories that document the experiences of subaltern groups such as women, workers, peasants, and indigenous peoples
• Subaltern narratives challenge the authority of official histories and canonical texts, and provide alternative or counter-hegemonic perspectives on the past and present

Subaltern as a literary trope

• The subaltern has also become a recurring trope or figure in postcolonial literature, representing the marginalized or oppressed subject who resists or subverts the dominant order
• Examples of subaltern figures in literature include the "coolie" or indentured laborer in Caribbean literature, the "mestiza" or mixed-race woman in Chicana literature, and the "dalit" or untouchable in Indian literature
• The subaltern as a literary trope often serves as a metaphor for the broader struggles of marginalized groups against colonialism, racism, and other forms of oppression

Subaltern and popular culture

• The subaltern is also represented in popular culture, such as music, film, and television, reflecting the politics of cultural resistance and appropriation
• Examples of subaltern popular culture include reggae music in the Caribbean, hip-hop in the United States, and Bollywood cinema in India
• Subaltern popular culture often involves the subversion or reclaiming of dominant cultural forms, as well as the creation of new or hybrid forms that express subaltern identities and aspirations

Critiques and limitations

• While subaltern studies has been influential in challenging dominant paradigms and recovering marginalized histories, it has also been subject to various critiques and limitations
• These critiques have focused on issues such as the essentialization of subaltern identity, the neglect of gender and other forms of difference, and the relationship between subaltern studies and Western academia

Essentialism and homogenization

• Some critics have argued that subaltern studies tends to essentialize or homogenize the subaltern as a singular or undifferentiated category, ignoring the diversity and complexity of subaltern experiences
• The emphasis on subaltern resistance and agency may also romanticize or idealize the subaltern as a source of authentic or uncontaminated subjectivity, reproducing colonial stereotypes of the noble savage or the revolutionary masses
• The critique of essentialism calls for a more nuanced and contextualized understanding of subaltern identity and agency, recognizing the intersections of class, gender, race, and other social categories

Neglect of gender and intersectionality

• Feminist scholars have criticized subaltern studies for its neglect of gender and the specific experiences and struggles of subaltern women
• The focus on class and colonialism in subaltern studies may obscure the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of oppression, such as racism, casteism, and heteronormativity
• The critique of gender and intersectionality calls for a more inclusive and intersectional approach to subaltern studies, recognizing the multiple and overlapping forms of marginalization and resistance

Subaltern studies and Western academia

• Some critics have questioned the relationship between subaltern studies and Western academia, arguing that the field may reproduce the very power relations it seeks to challenge
• The institutionalization of subaltern studies in Western universities may lead to the appropriation or depoliticization of subaltern struggles, as well as the exclusion of subaltern voices and perspectives
• The critique of Western academia calls for a more reflexive and collaborative approach to subaltern studies, involving the participation and empowerment of subaltern communities and movements

Contemporary relevance

• Despite its limitations and critiques, subaltern studies remains relevant for understanding and challenging the ongoing forms of marginalization and resistance in the contemporary world
• The insights of subaltern studies can be applied to the analysis of new social movements, the impacts of globalization, and the changing forms of subaltern identity and agency

Subaltern in the age of globalization

• Globalization has created new forms of subaltern identity and resistance, as well as new challenges and opportunities for subaltern struggles
• The global spread of neoliberalism and the rise of new forms of imperialism have exacerbated the marginalization and exploitation of subaltern groups, such as migrant workers, refugees, and indigenous peoples
• At the same time, globalization has also enabled new forms of subaltern solidarity and resistance, such as transnational social movements and digital activism

Subaltern and new social movements

• Subaltern studies can inform the analysis of new social movements, such as the Arab Spring, Occupy Wall Street, and Black Lives Matter, which challenge the dominant power structures and assert the agency of marginalized groups
• These movements often involve the mobilization of subaltern identities and the creation of new forms of subaltern knowledge and practice, such as horizontalism, prefigurative politics, and intersectional solidarity
• The study of new social movements can enrich and expand the insights of subaltern studies, as well as contribute to the ongoing struggles for social justice and emancipation

Rethinking the subaltern today

• The contemporary relevance of subaltern studies calls for a rethinking of the concept of the subaltern and its implications for theory and practice
• This may involve a more critical and reflexive approach to the politics of representation and the ethics of solidarity, as well as a more dialogical and collaborative engagement with subaltern communities and movements
• Rethinking the subaltern today also requires a more intersectional and transnational understanding of power and resistance, recognizing the multiple and overlapping forms of oppression and struggle in the global context
• Ultimately, the ongoing relevance of subaltern studies lies in its commitment to amplifying the voices and agency of marginalized groups, and to imagining and building alternative futures beyond the dominant structures of power and inequality