🤐Media Criticism Unit 13 – Media Ethics: Theories and Case Studies

Key Ethical Theories

• Deontology focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions based on a set of rules or duties
  • Emphasizes following moral rules (telling the truth) regardless of outcomes
  • Associated with philosopher Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative
• Utilitarianism seeks to maximize overall happiness and well-being for the greatest number of people
  • Considers the consequences of actions in determining their moral worth
  • Developed by philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
• Virtue ethics emphasizes the importance of character traits and moral virtues (honesty, compassion) in guiding ethical behavior
• Care ethics prioritizes empathy, compassion, and the maintenance of interpersonal relationships
  • Often associated with feminist approaches to ethics
• Egoism holds that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest
• Social contract theory suggests that moral norms derive from an implicit agreement among members of a society to behave in a certain way
• Ethical relativism maintains that moral judgments are relative to individual or cultural beliefs and practices

Historical Context of Media Ethics

• Early press in the United States and Europe operated with minimal ethical oversight or professional standards
• Yellow journalism in the late 19th century, characterized by sensationalism and exaggeration, prompted calls for higher ethical standards
• Development of professional journalism organizations (Society of Professional Journalists) in the early 20th century
  • Established codes of ethics emphasizing accuracy, fairness, and public service
• Radio and television broadcasting led to the creation of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1934 to regulate the airwaves
• Hutchins Commission report in 1947 outlined social responsibility theory of the press
  • Emphasized media's obligation to serve the public interest and provide diverse viewpoints
• Proliferation of cable television and the internet in the late 20th and early 21st centuries created new ethical challenges around content, privacy, and digital manipulation

Ethical Decision-Making Models

• Potter Box model provides a systematic framework for making ethical decisions
  • Consists of four steps: define the situation, identify values, consider principles, and choose loyalties
• Bok model emphasizes the importance of considering the moral justifications and consequences of decisions
  • Asks whether a decision would be acceptable if it were universally applied
• Kidder's ethical checkpoints offer a series of questions to guide decision-making
  • Includes considerations of ends-based, rule-based, and care-based thinking
• SPJ Code of Ethics provides guiding principles for journalists
  • Emphasizes seeking truth, minimizing harm, acting independently, and being accountable
• Poynter Institute's Guiding Principles for the Journalist outline key ethical values
  • Includes accuracy, independence, minimizing harm, and serving as a watchdog
• Stakeholder analysis involves identifying and considering the interests of all parties affected by a decision
• Moral reasoning models (COVER, PLUS) provide step-by-step approaches to ethical problem-solving

Case Studies in Media Ethics

• Janet Cooke scandal involved a Washington Post reporter fabricating a story about an 8-year-old heroin addict
  • Raises issues of journalistic integrity, fact-checking, and pressure to produce sensational stories
• CNN/Time NewsStand's "Valley of Death" report accused U.S. forces of using nerve gas in Laos during the Vietnam War
  • Highlights the importance of verifying sources and resisting pressure to rush to publication
• New York Times coverage of weapons of mass destruction leading up to the Iraq War
  • Demonstrates the risks of relying too heavily on government sources and failing to challenge official narratives
• News of the World phone hacking scandal in the UK
  • Involved journalists illegally accessing voicemails of celebrities, crime victims, and members of the royal family
  • Raises questions about privacy rights and the limits of journalistic investigation
• Rolling Stone's retracted "A Rape on Campus" article
  • Illustrates the dangers of inadequate fact-checking and the impact of false reporting on individuals and institutions
• Jayson Blair plagiarism case at the New York Times
  • Highlights issues of journalistic integrity, newsroom diversity, and the need for robust editing and oversight
• CBS News' use of forged documents in a report on George W. Bush's National Guard service
  • Underscores the importance of document verification and the risks of relying on partisan sources

Legal vs. Ethical Considerations

• Laws establish minimum standards of conduct, while ethics provide guidance for behavior beyond legal requirements
• First Amendment protects freedom of the press, but does not shield journalists from ethical obligations
• Libel laws protect individuals from false and defamatory statements
  • Ethical journalists strive to avoid publishing false or misleading information, even if it may be legally defensible
• Privacy laws vary by jurisdiction and may limit the publication of certain personal information
  • Ethical considerations may compel journalists to withhold sensitive information even when legally permissible
• Shield laws in some states protect journalists from revealing confidential sources
  • Ethical principles of confidentiality may lead journalists to refuse to disclose sources even in the absence of legal protections
• Copyright laws protect the intellectual property rights of creators
  • Ethical journalists obtain permission and provide proper attribution when using others' work
• Regulations on political advertising and campaign finance may limit certain types of media content
  • Ethical principles of transparency and independence may lead media organizations to voluntarily disclose funding sources and political affiliations

Digital Age Challenges

• Spread of misinformation and disinformation online
  • Raises questions about the responsibility of platforms and individuals to combat false information
• Algorithmic bias and the impact of personalized content on public discourse
  • Highlights the need for transparency and accountability in the development and deployment of algorithms
• Blurring of lines between news, opinion, and advertising in online media
  • Challenges traditional notions of editorial independence and disclosure of sponsored content
• Potential for digital manipulation of images and videos (deepfakes)
  • Requires robust verification processes and clear labeling of altered content
• Online harassment and hate speech
  • Raises questions about the balance between free expression and the protection of vulnerable groups
• Privacy concerns related to data collection and targeted advertising
  • Necessitates clear disclosure of data practices and user control over personal information
• Role of social media in shaping public opinion and political discourse
  • Highlights the need for media literacy and critical thinking skills among users

Applying Ethics to Different Media Forms

• Print journalism emphasizes accuracy, fairness, and editorial independence
  • Ethical challenges include the pressure to sensationalize stories and the impact of declining ad revenue
• Broadcast news values immediacy and visual impact
  • Ethical considerations include the potential for graphic or disturbing footage and the influence of ratings on content
• Online journalism allows for greater interactivity and multimedia storytelling
  • Ethical challenges include the need for constant updates and the potential for unverified information to spread rapidly
• Photojournalism relies on the power of visual imagery to convey information and emotion
  • Ethical principles include the accurate representation of events and the protection of subject privacy
• Documentary filmmaking often involves close relationships between filmmakers and subjects
  • Ethical considerations include obtaining informed consent and accurately portraying individuals and communities
• Public relations professionals face tensions between serving clients' interests and maintaining public trust
  • Ethical principles include transparency, truthfulness, and respect for the public interest
• Advertising relies on persuasive techniques to influence consumer behavior
  • Ethical challenges include the potential for deceptive or misleading claims and the targeting of vulnerable populations

Future of Media Ethics

• Increasing importance of media literacy education to help audiences navigate the complex media landscape
• Need for ongoing professional development and training in ethics for media professionals
• Potential for emerging technologies (virtual reality, artificial intelligence) to create new ethical challenges
  • May require the development of new ethical frameworks and guidelines
• Growing emphasis on diversity, equity, and inclusion in media organizations
  • Requires a commitment to representing a wide range of perspectives and experiences
• Importance of rebuilding public trust in media institutions
  • Necessitates greater transparency, accountability, and responsiveness to audience concerns
• Potential for collaborative, cross-border journalism to address global ethical issues
  • Requires a shared commitment to ethical principles and standards across cultures and jurisdictions
• Ongoing debates about the role of government regulation in ensuring ethical media practices
  • Highlights the tension between protecting free expression and promoting responsible media behavior
• Need for media organizations to prioritize long-term sustainability and independence
  • May require innovative business models and a focus on serving the public interest over short-term profits