📺Media Effects Unit 5 – Research Methods in Media Effects

Key Concepts and Theories

• Media effects research investigates the impact of media exposure on individuals, groups, and society
• Cultivation theory proposes that long-term exposure to media shapes perceptions of social reality (heavy TV viewers)
• Agenda-setting theory suggests media influences the public's perception of issue importance by emphasizing certain topics
  • First-level agenda-setting focuses on the salience of issues
  • Second-level agenda-setting examines how media frames attributes of issues
• Uses and gratifications theory posits that individuals actively seek out media to satisfy specific needs (entertainment, information, social interaction)
• Social cognitive theory asserts that people learn behaviors through observing and imitating media models
• Priming theory proposes that media exposure activates related concepts in memory, influencing subsequent judgments and behaviors
• Framing theory examines how media presentation of issues influences public perception and opinion

Research Design Basics

• Research design is the overall strategy for conducting a study to answer specific research questions
• Descriptive research aims to systematically describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon
• Correlational research investigates relationships between variables without manipulating them (media use and political knowledge)
• Experimental research manipulates one or more independent variables to observe effects on dependent variables
  • True experiments involve random assignment of participants to conditions
  • Quasi-experiments lack random assignment but still manipulate variables
• Longitudinal research collects data from the same participants at multiple points over an extended period
• Cross-sectional research collects data from participants at a single point in time
• Qualitative research gathers non-numerical data (interviews, focus groups) to explore meanings and experiences
• Quantitative research collects numerical data for statistical analysis (surveys, content analysis)

Data Collection Methods

• Surveys gather self-reported data from participants using questionnaires
  • Can be administered online, by phone, or in-person
  • Closed-ended questions provide predetermined response options
  • Open-ended questions allow participants to respond in their own words
• Interviews involve in-depth, one-on-one conversations with participants to explore their experiences and perspectives
• Focus groups bring together a small group of participants to discuss a topic guided by a moderator
• Observational research involves systematically watching and recording behavior in natural settings (media use in public spaces)
• Content analysis systematically codes and analyzes media messages (news articles, TV shows) based on predefined categories
• Physiological measures assess bodily responses to media (heart rate, skin conductance) as indicators of emotional arousal
• Big data analysis examines large datasets generated by digital media platforms to identify patterns and trends

Sampling Techniques

• Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of a population to represent the entire group in a study
• Probability sampling gives every member of the population a known, non-zero chance of being selected
  • Simple random sampling selects participants purely by chance from a list of the population
  • Stratified random sampling divides the population into subgroups (strata) and randomly samples from each stratum
  • Cluster sampling randomly selects groups (clusters) and then samples all members within selected clusters
• Non-probability sampling does not give every member of the population an equal chance of being selected
  • Convenience sampling selects participants based on their accessibility and willingness to participate
  • Snowball sampling recruits initial participants who then refer other potential participants
  • Quota sampling selects participants based on predetermined characteristics to match population proportions
• Sample size determination involves calculating the number of participants needed to detect effects with desired statistical power

Measurement and Variables

• Variables are characteristics that can take on different values across individuals or situations
• Independent variables are manipulated or measured to examine their effect on dependent variables
• Dependent variables are measured outcomes presumed to be influenced by independent variables
• Extraneous variables are factors other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable
• Operational definitions specify how variables will be measured or manipulated in a study
• Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure across time, individuals, or items
  • Test-retest reliability assesses consistency of scores from the same measure at different times
  • Inter-rater reliability evaluates agreement between multiple coders or observers
• Validity refers to the extent to which a measure accurately captures the intended construct
  • Face validity is the subjective judgment of whether a measure appears to assess the intended construct
  • Construct validity evaluates whether a measure correlates with other theoretically related variables
  • External validity refers to the generalizability of findings to other populations, settings, or times

Data Analysis Approaches

• Descriptive statistics summarize and describe key features of a dataset (mean, median, standard deviation)
• Inferential statistics use sample data to make generalizations about the larger population
• Hypothesis testing involves specifying a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis, then using statistical tests to determine the likelihood of observed results if the null hypothesis were true
• T-tests compare means between two groups to determine if differences are statistically significant
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests for mean differences between three or more groups
• Correlation coefficients (Pearson's r, Spearman's rho) measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
• Regression analysis predicts values of a dependent variable based on one (simple regression) or more (multiple regression) independent variables
• Factor analysis identifies underlying dimensions or factors that explain correlations among a set of variables
• Structural equation modeling (SEM) tests complex relationships among multiple variables, including latent constructs

Ethical Considerations

• Informed consent ensures that participants understand the nature of the study and voluntarily agree to participate
• Confidentiality protects participants' identities and prevents linking their responses to personal information
• Anonymity goes further by collecting no identifying information from participants
• Deception involves intentionally withholding information or misleading participants about the study's true purpose
  • Should only be used when necessary and minimized as much as possible
  • Participants must be debriefed and informed of the deception afterwards
• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review and approve research proposals to ensure ethical treatment of human subjects
• Researchers must weigh potential risks and benefits of the study and take steps to minimize harm to participants
• Special considerations are needed for vulnerable populations (children, prisoners, individuals with mental illness)
• Researchers should be transparent in reporting methods, analyses, and potential conflicts of interest

Practical Applications

• Evaluating the effectiveness of media campaigns (health promotion, political advertising) to inform future messaging strategies
• Examining the role of media in shaping public opinion on social and political issues to foster informed citizenship
• Investigating the impact of media violence on aggressive behavior to guide media content policies and parental mediation
• Assessing the effects of social media use on mental health and well-being to develop interventions and best practices
• Exploring the influence of media representation on stereotypes and attitudes toward diverse groups to promote inclusivity
• Studying the spread of misinformation online to develop strategies for combating false information and promoting media literacy
• Analyzing the effects of media multitasking on cognitive processing and learning outcomes to optimize educational media use
• Evaluating the impact of media parenting practices on children's media habits and development to inform family media plans