📺Media Effects Unit 7 – Media and Political Communication

Key Concepts and Theories

• Agenda-setting theory suggests media influences public perception of issue importance by emphasizing certain topics
  • McCombs and Shaw's 1968 study found strong correlation between media coverage and voter priorities
• Framing theory posits media frames shape public understanding of issues by highlighting specific aspects
  • Episodic frames focus on individual stories while thematic frames emphasize broader context
• Priming theory proposes media exposure activates related concepts in viewers' minds, influencing their judgments
• Cultivation theory argues long-term exposure to media messages shapes perceptions of social reality
  • Gerbner's research found heavy TV viewers held exaggerated perceptions of crime and violence
• Two-step flow model suggests opinion leaders mediate media influence by interpreting and disseminating messages to their networks
• Selective exposure theory contends individuals seek information aligning with their beliefs, avoiding cognitive dissonance

Historical Context

• Early 20th century saw rise of mass media (radio, newspapers) as primary sources of political information
• FDR's fireside chats exemplified radio's potential for direct communication between leaders and citizens
• Television's emergence in 1950s transformed political campaigns, emphasizing candidate image and soundbites
  • Kennedy-Nixon debates in 1960 highlighted TV's impact, with Kennedy's telegenic appearance influencing viewer perceptions
• Watergate scandal in 1970s demonstrated media's watchdog role, leading to increased public skepticism of government
• 24-hour cable news channels (CNN) in 1980s accelerated news cycle and provided platform for partisan commentary
• Internet's rise in 1990s and social media's growth in 2000s decentralized political communication, enabling direct candidate-voter interaction

Media's Role in Political Processes

• Media serves as primary conduit for political information, shaping public knowledge and opinions
• News coverage of campaigns, policy debates, and government actions influences voter perceptions and decision-making
  • Horse race coverage focusing on polls and campaign strategies can overshadow substantive issues
• Media acts as watchdog, scrutinizing government and exposing wrongdoing (Watergate, Pentagon Papers)
• Editorial endorsements and op-eds can sway public opinion, particularly in local races
• Debates and interviews provide opportunities to assess candidate qualifications and positions
  • Format and moderator questions can influence viewer impressions and post-debate narratives
• Political advertising allows candidates to control messaging and target specific demographics
  • Negative ads can be effective but may contribute to voter cynicism and disengagement

Campaign Strategies and Tactics

• Message discipline involves staying on-topic and repeating key themes to penetrate media narrative
• Microtargeting uses data analytics to identify and reach specific voter segments with tailored messages
  • Cambridge Analytica's use of psychographic profiling in 2016 US presidential election raised ethical concerns
• Opposition research uncovers damaging information about opponents for use in ads and media outreach
• Earned media refers to news coverage generated by campaign events, statements, and surrogates
  • Trump's 2016 campaign garnered extensive earned media through provocative tweets and rallies
• Paid media includes TV, radio, print, and digital advertising to promote candidates and attack opponents
• Social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter) enable direct communication with voters and rapid response to news cycles
  • Obama's 2008 campaign successfully leveraged social media for organizing and fundraising

Public Opinion Formation

• Partisan selective exposure leads individuals to consume media content reinforcing their existing beliefs
  • Echo chambers and filter bubbles can limit exposure to diverse perspectives and contribute to polarization
• Agenda-setting effects are stronger for issues with which individuals have less direct experience
• Framing effects are more pronounced when frames resonate with individuals' existing values and predispositions
  • Politically knowledgeable individuals may be more resistant to framing effects
• Priming can influence evaluations of candidates based on media's emphasis of certain issues
  • Iyengar and Kinder's experiments found priming effects on presidential approval ratings
• Interpersonal communication and social networks play key role in shaping opinions, as individuals look to peers for cues
• Public opinion polls can exert bandwagon or underdog effects, influencing voter behavior based on perceived candidate viability

Digital Media and Political Communication

• Social media has democratized political discourse, allowing citizens to engage directly with candidates and each other
  • User-generated content (memes, viral videos) can shape campaign narratives and public perceptions
• Microtargeting and big data enable campaigns to deliver personalized messages to individual voters
  • Raises privacy concerns and potential for voter manipulation
• Algorithmic filtering and recommendation systems can create ideological silos and reinforce confirmation bias
• Misinformation and fake news can spread rapidly online, undermining informed decision-making
  • 2016 US election saw proliferation of false stories, often amplified by bots and foreign actors
• Digital platforms have become key battlegrounds for campaign advertising and voter mobilization
  • Google and Facebook's dominance in online ad market gives them significant influence over political messaging
• Cybersecurity threats (hacking, leaks) pose risks to campaigns and election integrity
  • Russian interference in 2016 US election involved hacking of Democratic National Committee emails

Ethical Considerations

• Journalistic objectivity and fairness in covering campaigns and government actions
  • False balance in pursuit of impartiality can give undue credence to fringe views
• Potential for media bias, both in terms of partisan slant and structural biases favoring conflict and novelty
• Blurring of news and entertainment, as political coverage increasingly focuses on personalities and spectacle
  • Satirical shows (Daily Show, Last Week Tonight) have become important sources of news for some viewers
• Concentration of media ownership and its impact on diversity of perspectives and local news coverage
• Transparency in disclosing conflicts of interest and separating news from opinion content
• Responsible reporting on polls, avoiding over-emphasis on horse race narratives
• Ethical implications of microtargeting and psychographic profiling, as well as potential for voter suppression

Case Studies and Real-World Examples

• 1960 Kennedy-Nixon debates and the role of television in shaping voter perceptions
  • Radio listeners thought Nixon won, while TV viewers favored Kennedy
• Watergate scandal and the media's role in exposing government corruption
  • Washington Post's dogged reporting led to Nixon's resignation
• 1988 Willie Horton ad and the use of racial appeals in political advertising
  • Bush campaign's attack ad featuring black convict was widely criticized for playing on racial stereotypes
• 2008 Obama campaign's groundbreaking use of social media and grassroots organizing
  • MyBarackObama.com platform empowered supporters to create events and raise funds
• 2016 US presidential election and the impact of fake news, foreign interference, and microtargeting
  • Trump campaign's use of Cambridge Analytica's psychographic targeting sparked controversy
• 2020 US presidential election and the role of mail-in voting and misinformation amid COVID-19 pandemic
  • Trump's false claims of voter fraud undermined public confidence in election integrity