4.3 Factors affecting temperature distribution

Temperature distribution in the atmosphere is influenced by a complex interplay of factors. From latitude and altitude to surface characteristics and ocean currents, these elements shape how heat is distributed across the globe. Understanding these factors is key to grasping the bigger picture of atmospheric heat transfer.

Earth's rotation and revolution, along with atmospheric circulation patterns, add another layer of complexity. These processes create daily and seasonal temperature variations, as well as global wind patterns that move heat around the planet. Human activities also play a significant role in altering temperature distributions, especially in urban areas.

Temperature Distribution Factors

Latitude and Altitude Effects

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• Latitude significantly affects temperature distribution
  • Varying angles of solar radiation received at different latitudes
  • Equator receives more direct sunlight than the poles
  • Results in warmer temperatures near the equator and cooler temperatures towards the poles
• Altitude influences temperature through the environmental lapse rate
  • Temperature generally decreases with increasing height in the troposphere
  • Rate of approximately 6.5°C per kilometer
  • Explains why mountaintops are cooler than valleys (Mount Everest, Alps)

Surface Characteristics and Water Bodies

• Surface characteristics play a crucial role in determining local temperature patterns
  • Albedo affects the amount of solar radiation reflected or absorbed (snow vs. dark soil)
  • Heat capacity influences how quickly a surface heats up or cools down (rock vs. water)
  • Thermal conductivity determines how well heat is transferred through a material (metal vs. wood)
• Proximity to large water bodies moderates temperature fluctuations
  • High specific heat capacity of water creates maritime climates
  • Results in cooler summers and milder winters compared to continental interiors
  • Examples include coastal cities (San Francisco, Sydney)

Topography and Vegetation

• Topographical features influence temperature distribution
  • Mountains and valleys affect air flow patterns
  • Create phenomena like rain shadows (Rocky Mountains) and temperature inversions (Los Angeles Basin)
• Vegetation cover impacts local temperatures
  • Evapotranspiration and shading processes
  • Forests generally have a cooling effect compared to bare ground or urban areas
  • Examples include Amazon rainforest vs. Sahara desert

Ocean Currents and Heat Transfer

• Ocean currents significantly influence coastal and regional temperature patterns
  • Transfer heat energy across large distances
  • Warm currents (Gulf Stream) bring higher temperatures to adjacent land areas
  • Cold currents (California Current) bring cooler temperatures to coastal regions
  • Affect climate of entire continents (Western Europe's mild winters due to North Atlantic Drift)

Earth's Rotation and Revolution Effects

Diurnal Temperature Variations

• Earth's rotation on its axis causes daily temperature fluctuations
  • Temperatures generally peak in the afternoon
  • Minimum temperatures occur just before sunrise
  • Explains why early mornings are cooler than late afternoons
• Rotation period of approximately 24 hours
  • Creates predictable day-night cycles for most locations on Earth
  • Exceptions occur near the poles during certain times of the year (midnight sun, polar night)

Seasonal Temperature Changes

• Tilt of Earth's axis (approximately 23.5°) drives seasonal temperature changes
  • Alters the angle and duration of solar radiation received at different latitudes throughout the year
  • Northern Hemisphere experiences summer when tilted towards the Sun, winter when tilted away
  • Southern Hemisphere experiences opposite seasons
• Earth's revolution around the Sun creates distinct seasons
  • Orbital period of approximately 365.25 days
  • Leads to varying amounts of solar energy received at different times of the year

Solstices and Equinoxes

• Solstices mark maximum tilt of Earth's axis towards or away from the Sun
  • Result in longest and shortest days of the year
  • Correspond to temperature extremes in many locations
  • Summer solstice (June in Northern Hemisphere, December in Southern Hemisphere)
  • Winter solstice (December in Northern Hemisphere, June in Southern Hemisphere)
• Equinoxes occur when Earth's axis is tilted neither towards nor away from the Sun
  • Approximately equal day and night lengths globally
  • More moderate temperatures compared to solstices
  • Spring equinox (March) and autumn equinox (September)

Orbital Factors and Long-Term Cycles

• Elliptical shape of Earth's orbit (eccentricity) causes variations in Earth-Sun distance
  • Affects intensity of solar radiation received throughout the year
  • Contributes to seasonal temperature patterns
  • Current difference between perihelion and aphelion is about 3%
• Precession and nutation of Earth's axis influence long-term temperature patterns
  • Contribute to climate cycles such as Milankovitch cycles
  • Precession cycle of approximately 26,000 years
  • Nutation cycle of approximately 18.6 years
  • Affect distribution of solar radiation over long time scales

Atmospheric Circulation Patterns' Influence

Global Circulation Cells

• Hadley cell redistributes heat from equator towards subtropics
  • Significantly influences temperature distributions in tropical and subtropical regions
  • Creates areas of rising air near the equator and sinking air in the subtropics
  • Drives trade winds and affects formation of tropical rainforests and deserts
• Ferrel and Polar cells complement the Hadley cell
  • Create a three-cell model of global atmospheric circulation
  • Ferrel cell operates in mid-latitudes (30°-60°)
  • Polar cell circulates air in polar regions (60°-90°)
  • Together, these cells affect temperature patterns at different latitudes

Jet Streams and Air Mass Movement

• Jet streams influence movement of air masses and associated temperature patterns
  • Narrow bands of strong winds in the upper troposphere
  • Polar jet stream located around 60° latitude
  • Subtropical jet stream found near 30° latitude
  • Affect weather systems and temperature distributions across mid-latitudes
• Jet streams can create temperature contrasts
  • Warm air to the south of the polar jet stream
  • Cold air to the north of the polar jet stream
  • Contribute to formation of weather fronts and mid-latitude cyclones

Tropical and Subtropical Circulation Patterns

• Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) affects tropical temperature patterns
  • Band of low pressure near the equator where Hadley cells meet
  • Influences temperature and precipitation in tropical regions
  • Shifts seasonally, affecting monsoon patterns (Indian monsoon)
• Walker circulation influences equatorial Pacific temperatures
  • East-west atmospheric circulation along the equator
  • Affects temperature distributions during El Niño and La Niña events
  • Impacts global weather patterns and ocean temperatures

Monsoons and Ocean Gyres

• Monsoon circulations driven by seasonal temperature differences
  • Land-sea temperature contrasts create pressure gradients
  • Significantly affect temperature and precipitation patterns
  • Examples include South Asian monsoon and West African monsoon
• Ocean gyres redistribute heat globally
  • Large-scale circular ocean currents driven by wind patterns and Coriolis effect
  • Influence coastal temperature patterns
  • Examples include North Atlantic Gyre and North Pacific Gyre

Human Impact on Temperature Patterns

Urban Heat Islands

• Urbanization creates areas of higher temperatures in cities
  • Cities experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas
  • Caused by increased heat absorption by buildings and pavement
  • Reduced vegetation in urban areas contributes to the effect
  • Anthropogenic heat sources (vehicles, air conditioning) add to temperature increase
• Urban heat islands can have significant local impacts
  • Increased energy consumption for cooling
  • Higher incidence of heat-related illnesses
  • Altered local wind patterns and precipitation

Land Use Changes and Surface Modifications

• Deforestation and agricultural expansion alter surface properties
  • Changes in surface albedo affect energy absorption and reflection
  • Modifications to evapotranspiration rates impact local water cycle
  • Affect local and regional temperature patterns through changes in energy balance
• Large-scale irrigation in agricultural areas can lead to local cooling effects
  • Increased evapotranspiration from irrigated crops
  • Potential to alter regional temperature patterns and atmospheric circulation
  • Examples include California's Central Valley and the Indo-Gangetic Plain

Industrial and Transportation Impacts

• Industrial activities release heat and greenhouse gases
  • Contribute to localized temperature increases
  • Add to broader climate change effects
  • Examples include industrial parks and power plants
• Transportation systems affect urban temperatures
  • Vehicle emissions contribute to heat and pollution
  • Asphalt roads absorb and re-emit heat
  • Traffic congestion can create localized hot spots

Water Management and Urban Planning

• Creation of artificial water bodies modifies local temperature patterns
  • Reservoirs can increase humidity and alter wind patterns
  • Examples include Lake Mead (Hoover Dam) and Three Gorges Dam reservoir
• Urban planning decisions influence temperature distributions within cities
  • Orientation of streets affects air flow and heat distribution
  • Use of green spaces can mitigate urban heat island effects
  • Building materials and designs impact heat absorption and reflection

Global Climate Change

• Human-induced changes in atmospheric composition alter long-term temperature patterns
  • Increase in greenhouse gases contributes to global warming trends
  • Carbon dioxide, methane, and other gases trap heat in the atmosphere
  • Results in rising global average temperatures
  • Leads to more frequent extreme weather events (heat waves, droughts)
• Climate change impacts vary across regions
  • Arctic amplification causes faster warming in polar regions
  • Sea level rise affects coastal temperatures and weather patterns
  • Changes in ocean circulation (Gulf Stream weakening) could impact regional climates