📈Business Microeconomics Unit 3 – Elasticity: Business Applications

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Elasticity measures the responsiveness of one variable to changes in another variable
• Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures how sensitive the quantity demanded of a good is to its price
  • Calculated as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price
• Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures how sensitive the quantity supplied of a good is to its price
  • Calculated as the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in price
• Income elasticity of demand measures how sensitive the quantity demanded of a good is to changes in consumer income
• Cross-price elasticity of demand measures how sensitive the quantity demanded of one good is to changes in the price of another good
• Elastic demand or supply occurs when the absolute value of elasticity is greater than 1, indicating a high responsiveness to price changes
• Inelastic demand or supply occurs when the absolute value of elasticity is less than 1, indicating a low responsiveness to price changes
• Unit elastic demand or supply occurs when the absolute value of elasticity equals 1, indicating proportional changes in quantity and price

Types of Elasticity

• Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in price
• Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to changes in price
• Income elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in consumer income
  • Normal goods have positive income elasticity, meaning demand increases as income rises (cars, vacations)
  • Inferior goods have negative income elasticity, meaning demand decreases as income rises (public transportation, generic brands)
• Cross-price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded of one good to changes in the price of another good
  • Substitute goods have positive cross-price elasticity, meaning demand for one good increases as the price of its substitute rises (Coca-Cola and Pepsi)
  • Complementary goods have negative cross-price elasticity, meaning demand for one good decreases as the price of its complement rises (cars and gasoline)
• Advertising elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in advertising expenditure

Calculating Elasticity

• Elasticity is calculated using the midpoint formula to avoid asymmetry and provide a more accurate measure
  • Midpoint formula: $Elasticity = \frac{(Q_2 - Q_1) / [(Q_2 + Q_1) / 2]}{(P_2 - P_1) / [(P_2 + P_1) / 2]}$
• Price elasticity of demand (PED) = (% change in quantity demanded) / (% change in price)
• Price elasticity of supply (PES) = (% change in quantity supplied) / (% change in price)
• Income elasticity of demand = (% change in quantity demanded) / (% change in income)
• Cross-price elasticity of demand = (% change in quantity demanded of good X) / (% change in price of good Y)
• Elasticities can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of the relationship between the variables
• The absolute value of elasticity determines whether demand or supply is elastic (>1), inelastic (<1), or unit elastic (=1)

Factors Affecting Elasticity

• Availability of substitutes: goods with many close substitutes tend to have more elastic demand (fast food)
• Necessity vs. luxury: necessities tend to have inelastic demand, while luxuries have more elastic demand (insulin vs. designer clothing)
• Time horizon: demand tends to be more elastic in the long run as consumers have more time to adjust their behavior
• Share of budget: goods that consume a larger share of a consumer's budget tend to have more elastic demand (housing)
• Market definition: narrowly defined markets tend to have more elastic demand than broadly defined markets (specific brand vs. entire product category)
• Perishability: perishable goods tend to have more inelastic supply as producers cannot easily adjust quantity (fresh produce)
• Production capacity: goods with excess production capacity tend to have more elastic supply (manufactured goods)

Elasticity and Business Decision-Making

• Understanding elasticity helps businesses make informed decisions about pricing, production, and marketing strategies
• Elastic demand suggests that price changes will have a significant impact on quantity demanded and total revenue
  • Lowering prices can increase total revenue by attracting more customers
  • Raising prices can decrease total revenue due to a significant drop in quantity demanded
• Inelastic demand suggests that price changes will have a minimal impact on quantity demanded and total revenue
  • Raising prices can increase total revenue as quantity demanded remains relatively stable
  • Lowering prices may not significantly increase quantity demanded or total revenue
• Businesses should consider the elasticity of their products when making decisions about pricing, production levels, and advertising expenditure
• Cross-price elasticity helps businesses understand the relationship between their products and those of competitors or complements

Pricing Strategies Based on Elasticity

• For products with elastic demand, businesses may consider a penetration pricing strategy
  • Setting low initial prices to attract customers and gain market share
  • Gradually increasing prices as the brand becomes established and demand becomes less elastic
• For products with inelastic demand, businesses may consider a premium pricing strategy
  • Setting high prices to maximize revenue and profit margins
  • Emphasizing the unique features and benefits of the product to justify the higher price
• Price discrimination involves charging different prices to different customer segments based on their elasticity of demand
  • Examples include student discounts, senior discounts, and volume discounts
• Dynamic pricing adjusts prices in real-time based on factors such as demand, supply, and competitor prices (airline tickets, ride-sharing services)
• Bundle pricing combines multiple products or services into a single package, often at a discounted price, to increase overall demand and revenue

Real-World Applications and Case Studies

• Airlines use dynamic pricing and price discrimination based on factors such as route, time of booking, and customer segmentation
  • Business travelers tend to have more inelastic demand and are charged higher prices
  • Leisure travelers have more elastic demand and are offered discounted fares
• Pharmaceutical companies often set high prices for patented drugs with inelastic demand, maximizing revenue and profitability
  • Generic drugs face more elastic demand due to the availability of substitutes, leading to lower prices
• Subscription-based services (Netflix, Spotify) rely on the relatively inelastic demand for their services to maintain a stable revenue stream
  • They may use price discrimination by offering different subscription tiers or student discounts
• Luxury brands (Louis Vuitton, Rolex) leverage the inelastic demand for their products to maintain high prices and exclusivity
  • They may use artificial scarcity and limited edition products to further increase demand and prices
• Retailers often use sales and promotions to stimulate demand for products with elastic demand (clothing, electronics)
  • They may also use bundle pricing to encourage customers to purchase multiple items and increase overall revenue

Limitations and Considerations

• Elasticity estimates are based on historical data and may not accurately predict future behavior
• Elasticity can change over time due to shifts in consumer preferences, income levels, or market conditions
• Measuring elasticity requires accurate data on prices, quantities, and other relevant variables, which may be difficult to obtain
• Elasticity estimates may vary depending on the specific market definition and data used in the calculation
• Businesses must consider factors beyond elasticity when making decisions, such as production costs, competition, and long-term strategic goals
• Focusing solely on short-term elasticity may lead to suboptimal long-term outcomes, such as damaging brand reputation or losing customer loyalty
• Elasticity analysis assumes that other factors remain constant (ceteris paribus), which may not always be realistic in real-world scenarios
• Businesses should use elasticity as one of many tools in their decision-making process, along with other market research, financial analysis, and strategic planning