1.2 Development of the Middle English language

Middle English emerged as a distinct language after the Norman Conquest. It absorbed French and Latin influences, expanding its vocabulary and changing its grammar. These changes shaped the language's development and set the stage for Modern English.

The period saw major sound shifts, like the Great Vowel Shift, and changes in spelling. Regional dialects flourished, but a standard written form began to emerge. These developments reflect the cultural and social changes of medieval England.

Linguistic Influences

French Influence on Middle English

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• Norman Conquest of 1066 led to French becoming the language of the ruling class in England
• French loanwords entered Middle English vocabulary, particularly in domains such as government, law, fashion, and cuisine (parliament, justice, gown, beef)
• French influenced Middle English grammar, contributing to the loss of inflectional endings and the development of a more fixed word order
• French suffixes and prefixes were adopted into Middle English, expanding the language's derivational morphology (-ance, -ity, -ment, en-, dis-)

Latin Influence on Middle English

• Latin remained the language of the Church and scholarship throughout the Middle English period
• Latin loanwords entered Middle English directly and indirectly through French
• Latin influenced Middle English in domains such as religion, education, and science (scripture, study, astronomy)
• Latin roots combined with Middle English words to create hybrid forms (outline, subdue)

Vocabulary Expansion in Middle English

• Middle English vocabulary expanded significantly due to borrowings from French and Latin
• Native English words coexisted with French and Latin borrowings, often leading to synonyms with different stylistic or register associations (kingly/royal, ask/question)
• Semantic shifts occurred as the meanings of existing words changed or expanded (deer, which originally meant "animal" in general, narrowed to refer specifically to the ruminant mammal)
• Compounding and derivation were productive processes for creating new words in Middle English (lodestar, darkness)

Sound Changes

The Great Vowel Shift

• Major phonological change affecting the long vowels of Middle English during the 15th and 16th centuries
• Long vowels became closer or were diphthongized, leading to significant changes in pronunciation (Middle English /eː/ > Modern English /iː/, as in "feet")
• The Great Vowel Shift is responsible for many irregularities in English spelling-pronunciation correspondences
• The causes of the Great Vowel Shift are debated, but it may have been influenced by contact with other languages or sociolinguistic factors

Other Pronunciation Changes in Middle English

• Middle English saw the loss of many unstressed syllables, contributing to the reduction of inflectional endings (Old English "nama" > Middle English "name")
• Phonological processes such as assimilation, dissimilation, and metathesis altered the pronunciation of certain words (Old English "hros" > Middle English "horse")
• The phoneme /h/ was lost in many contexts, especially in unstressed syllables and before consonants (Old English "hlāf" > Middle English "loaf")
• Consonant clusters were often simplified, particularly at the ends of words (Old English "cild" > Middle English "child")

Written Language Development

Orthography in Middle English

• Middle English orthography was variable and inconsistent, reflecting the lack of a standardized writing system
• Scribes often wrote words according to their own regional pronunciations, leading to a variety of spellings for the same word
• The influence of French and Latin led to the introduction of new spelling conventions, such as the use of "qu" for /kw/ and "gh" for /x/ (queen, night)
• The development of printing in the late 15th century contributed to the gradual standardization of English orthography

Standardization of Written English

• The increasing use of English in official documents, literature, and correspondence created a need for a more standardized written form of the language
• The Chancery Standard, based on the London dialect, emerged as a prestigious variety of written English in the 15th century
• The introduction of printing facilitated the spread of standardized spellings and punctuation conventions
• Early English dictionaries and grammars, such as Robert Cawdrey's "A Table Alphabeticall" (1604) and John Dryden's "Dictionary of the English Language" (1755), helped codify the norms of written English

Regional Variation

Dialects in Middle English

• Middle English was characterized by significant regional variation, with distinct dialects spoken in different parts of England
• The major dialect regions included the North, the Midlands, the South, and the Kentish dialect
• Dialects differed in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar
• The North-South divide was particularly prominent, with Northern dialects retaining more Scandinavian influences and Southern dialects exhibiting more French influences
• Middle English literature often reflects the regional dialects of its authors, as seen in works such as Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales" (East Midland dialect) and the "Cursor Mundi" (Northern dialect)
• The mixing of dialects through migration and contact contributed to the development of a more standardized form of English by the end of the Middle English period