9.5 African-derived instruments

African-derived instruments have profoundly shaped Latin American music. Brought to the Americas during the slave trade, these instruments blended with indigenous and European traditions, creating unique musical styles that reflect the region's diverse cultural heritage.

From membranophones like congas and bongos to idiophones like claves and maracas, African instruments have become integral to Latin American rhythms. Their influence extends to popular genres like salsa and samba, preserving African cultural identity and shaping the region's musical landscape.

African origins of Latin American instruments

• Many musical instruments used in Latin American music have roots tracing back to Africa
• African instruments were brought to the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade between the 16th and 19th centuries
• These instruments were adapted and evolved over time, blending with indigenous and European musical traditions to create unique Latin American musical styles

Membranophones of African origin

• Membranophones are instruments that produce sound through the vibration of a stretched membrane, typically made from animal skin or synthetic materials

Conga drums

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• Tall, barrel-shaped drums of Afro-Cuban origin
• Usually played in sets of two or more, with each drum tuned to a different pitch
• Played with the hands and fingers, producing a variety of tones and rhythms

Bongos

• Small, paired drums connected by a wooden bridge
• Higher-pitched than congas and often used in Afro-Cuban music (salsa, son)
• Played with the fingers and palms, creating high-pitched, syncopated rhythms

Timbales

• Shallow, metal-shelled drums mounted on a stand
• Typically played in pairs, often in salsa and other Afro-Cuban genres
• Played with sticks, producing sharp, piercing tones and complex rhythms

Bata drums

• Hourglass-shaped drums of Yoruba origin, used in sacred and secular Afro-Cuban music
• Played in sets of three (iya, itotele, okonkolo), each with a distinct pitch and role
• Played with the hands, producing complex polyrhythms and call-and-response patterns

Idiophones from Africa

• Idiophones are instruments that produce sound through the vibration of the instrument itself, without the use of strings or membranes

Claves

• Simple, wooden sticks struck together to produce a high-pitched, penetrating sound
• Provide the essential rhythmic backbone in many Afro-Cuban and Latin American genres (salsa, son, rumba)

Maracas

• Hollow gourds or shells filled with seeds or beads, shaken to produce a rattling sound
• Used in various Latin American musical styles, particularly in the Caribbean and South America

Guiro

• Hollow, notched gourd scraped with a stick to create a rhythmic, rasping sound
• Commonly used in Cuban and Puerto Rican music (salsa, merengue)

Cowbell

• Metal bell struck with a stick, producing a sharp, percussive tone
• Frequently used in Afro-Cuban and other Latin American dance music (salsa, merengue, samba)

Agogo bells

• Double or triple bells of West African origin, played with a stick
• Produce high-pitched, rhythmic patterns in Afro-Brazilian music (samba, maracatu)

Cabasa

• Percussion instrument consisting of a hollow gourd or metal cylinder covered with beads or chains
• Produces a scratching, rattling sound when twisted or shaken
• Used in various Afro-Latin genres, particularly in West African-influenced styles

Aerophones with African roots

• Aerophones are instruments that produce sound through the vibration of air

Marimba

• Large, wooden xylophone-like instrument with resonating gourds or tubes beneath the keys
• Originated in Africa and developed further in Central America, particularly in Guatemala and Mexico
• Played with mallets, producing a warm, mellow tone and complex, interlocking melodies

Harp vs lyre

• While not of direct African origin, the harp and lyre are sometimes compared to African string instruments
• The West African kora, a 21-string bridge-harp, shares some similarities with the Latin American harp
• The African lyre, such as the nyatiti from Kenya, also resembles some Latin American string instruments in form and playing technique

Chordophones of African heritage

• Chordophones are instruments that produce sound through the vibration of strings

Tres guitar

• Three-course (six-string) guitar of Cuban origin, with a distinctive sound and playing style
• Evolved from the Spanish guitar and various African string instruments
• Plays a central role in Cuban music, particularly in the son and guajira genres

Cuatro guitar

• Small, four-string guitar popular in Puerto Rican and other Caribbean music
• Descended from the Spanish guitar and influenced by African string instruments
• Provides harmonic and rhythmic accompaniment in jibaro music and other traditional styles

Cavaquinho

• Small, four-string guitar of Portuguese origin, brought to Brazil during the colonial period
• Influenced by African string instruments and playing techniques
• Essential in Brazilian samba and choro music, providing rhythmic and melodic support

Influence on Latin American rhythms

• African musical traditions have profoundly shaped the rhythmic foundations of Latin American music

African polyrhythms

• Complex, interlocking rhythmic patterns played simultaneously on multiple instruments
• Create a dense, layered texture and a strong sense of groove
• Found in various Afro-Latin genres (salsa, rumba, samba)

Call and response patterns

• Musical dialogue between a leader and a group, or between different sections of an ensemble
• Rooted in African musical and oral traditions
• Prevalent in many Afro-Latin musical styles, particularly in religious and folk music

Syncopation and improvisation

• Syncopation involves accenting weak beats or off-beats, creating a sense of rhythmic tension and forward motion
• Improvisation allows musicians to spontaneously create new melodies, rhythms, or variations within a given musical framework
• Both elements are central to African musical aesthetics and have heavily influenced Latin American music

Afro-Latin fusion genres

• The blending of African and Latin American musical traditions has given rise to numerous distinctive genres

Salsa

• Afro-Cuban dance music that emerged in New York City in the 1960s and 70s
• Incorporates elements of Cuban son, mambo, and other Caribbean styles with jazz and R&B influences
• Features a prominent role for African-derived percussion instruments (congas, timbales, cowbell)

Rumba

• Afro-Cuban music and dance style that originated in the 19th century
• Encompasses three main subgenres: yambú, guaguancó, and columbia
• Characterized by complex polyrhythms, call-and-response singing, and expressive dance movements

Samba

• Afro-Brazilian music and dance style that developed in Rio de Janeiro in the early 20th century
• Combines elements of African rhythms, European harmonies, and Brazilian melodies
• Typically features a large percussion section (surdo drums, tamborims, agogo bells) and syncopated rhythms

Cumbia

• Afro-Colombian music and dance style that originated in the Caribbean coastal region
• Blends African, indigenous, and European influences, with a distinctive shuffling rhythm and accordion melodies
• Has spread throughout Latin America, with regional variations in Mexico, Peru, Argentina, and elsewhere

Merengue

• Afro-Dominican dance music characterized by a fast, syncopated rhythm and a combination of African and European instruments
• Features a prominent role for the tambora drum, güira (metal scraper), and accordion or saxophone
• Became popular throughout the Caribbean and Latin America in the mid-20th century

Cultural significance of African instruments

• African-derived instruments have played a crucial role in shaping Latin American culture and identity

Role in religious ceremonies

• Many African instruments, such as the bata drums in Cuba, are used in sacred rituals and ceremonies
• These instruments are often associated with specific deities or spiritual practices (Santería, Candomblé)
• Their use in religious contexts helps preserve African cultural heritage and maintain connections to ancestral traditions

Use in popular music

• African instruments have been incorporated into various forms of popular Latin American music
• They contribute to the distinctive rhythms, timbres, and aesthetics of genres like salsa, samba, and cumbia
• The presence of these instruments in mainstream music helps to celebrate and promote Afro-Latin cultural identity

Representation of African identity

• The continued use and prominence of African-derived instruments in Latin American music serves as a powerful symbol of African heritage and identity
• These instruments provide a tangible link to the historical and cultural roots of Afro-Latin communities
• They also serve as a means of cultural resistance, asserting the value and significance of African traditions in the face of historical oppression and marginalization