3.7 Chinese mythological gods

Chinese mythology is a rich tapestry of ancient beliefs, rituals, and oral traditions spanning thousands of years. It reflects the complex interplay between cultural, philosophical, and religious elements in Chinese society, providing a foundation for understanding Chinese literature, art, and cultural practices.

The Chinese pantheon consists of a vast array of gods, goddesses, and supernatural beings, reflecting a hierarchical structure mirroring Chinese imperial bureaucracy. Deities are often associated with specific domains or natural phenomena, with the Jade Emperor ruling as the supreme deity.

Origins of Chinese mythology

• Chinese mythology emerged from a rich tapestry of ancient beliefs, rituals, and oral traditions spanning thousands of years
• Reflects the complex interplay between cultural, philosophical, and religious elements in Chinese society
• Provides a foundation for understanding Chinese literature, art, and cultural practices

Influence of ancient dynasties

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• Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) introduced ancestor worship and oracle bone divination
• Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) developed the concept of the Mandate of Heaven
• Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) synthesized various mythological traditions into a cohesive system
• Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) saw the incorporation of Buddhist elements into Chinese mythology

Role of folk religion

• Local deities and spirits (shen) played a crucial role in everyday life
• Practices included offerings, festivals, and rituals to appease and honor supernatural beings
• Folk tales and legends transmitted orally contributed to the diversity of mythological narratives
• Shamanic traditions influenced the development of religious and mythological practices

Major Chinese deities

• Chinese pantheon consists of a vast array of gods, goddesses, and supernatural beings
• Reflects a hierarchical structure mirroring Chinese imperial bureaucracy
• Deities often associated with specific domains (agriculture, wealth, war) or natural phenomena

Jade Emperor and heavenly court

• Jade Emperor (Yu Huang) rules as the supreme deity of Chinese mythology
• Presides over the celestial bureaucracy, mirroring the earthly imperial court
• Accompanied by celestial officials, including the Four Heavenly Kings and the Queen Mother of the West
• Annual court assembly determines the fate of mortal world and cosmic order

Eight Immortals

• Group of legendary Taoist figures who achieved immortality
• Each immortal possesses unique magical abilities and tools
• Includes figures such as Li Tieguai (Iron-crutch Li) and He Xiangu (Immortal Woman He)
• Often depicted crossing the Eastern Sea, symbolizing their transcendence of mortal limitations
• Revered in folk religion and frequently featured in literature and art

Dragon Kings

• Four brothers who rule over the seas and control water-related phenomena
• Associated with specific colors and cardinal directions (East-Blue, South-Red, West-White, North-Black)
• Reside in underwater crystal palaces and command aquatic creatures
• Worshipped for their ability to bring rain and prevent floods
• Play a significant role in Chinese folklore and religious practices related to agriculture

Creation myths

• Chinese creation myths explain the origins of the universe, Earth, and humanity
• Reflect philosophical concepts of yin and yang, as well as the five elements
• Often involve primordial chaos transforming into ordered cosmos

Pangu and cosmic egg

• Pangu emerged from a cosmic egg that contained the universe in chaos
• Separated the sky (yang) from the earth (yin) by pushing them apart for 18,000 years
• Pangu's body parts transformed into various elements of the world after his death
  • Breath became wind and clouds
  • Voice became thunder
  • Left eye became the sun, right eye the moon
  • Body and limbs formed mountains and extremities of the earth
• Symbolizes the transition from primordial chaos to ordered universe

Nüwa and human creation

• Nüwa, a primordial goddess, created humans from yellow clay
• Shaped the first humans by hand, then used a rope to create more efficiently
  • Explains perceived social hierarchies in ancient Chinese society
• Repaired the pillar of heaven when it collapsed, using five-colored stones
• Associated with marriage, fertility, and the invention of the flute
• Often depicted with a snake's tail, symbolizing her connection to primordial forces

Celestial bureaucracy

• Reflects the structure of Chinese imperial government in the supernatural realm
• Emphasizes the interconnectedness of heavenly and earthly affairs
• Provides a framework for understanding the roles and relationships of various deities

Hierarchy of gods

• Jade Emperor at the top, followed by celestial officials and lesser deities
• Includes departmental gods responsible for specific aspects of life (wealth, literature, war)
• City Gods (Chenghuang) oversee local affairs and report to higher authorities
• Kitchen God (Zao Jun) observes family behavior and reports annually to the Jade Emperor
• Hierarchy allows for promotion or demotion of deities based on their performance

Mortal vs immortal realms

• Clear distinction between the world of humans and the celestial realm
• Immortal beings can freely move between realms, while mortals require special circumstances
• Concept of xian (immortals) who have transcended mortal limitations through spiritual cultivation
• Interaction between realms often occurs through dreams, visions, or divine manifestations
• Mortals can potentially achieve immortality through virtuous deeds, alchemy, or spiritual practices

Taoist influences

• Taoism significantly shaped Chinese mythology and religious practices
• Emphasizes harmony with nature, the pursuit of longevity, and spiritual cultivation
• Introduced concepts of qi (life force) and the Tao (the Way) into mythological narratives

Laozi and Taoism

• Laozi, legendary founder of Taoism, believed to have authored the Tao Te Ching
• Teachings focus on wu wei (non-action) and alignment with natural principles
• Deified as Taiqing (Supreme Clarity) in religious Taoism
• Laozi's mythical journey westward inspired numerous legends and artistic depictions
• Concept of Tao influenced the development of Chinese cosmology and creation myths

Taoist immortals

• Xian (immortals) represent the ideal of spiritual and physical transcendence
• Achieved immortality through various means (alchemy, meditation, virtuous deeds)
• Often associated with specific mountains or sacred sites
• Possess supernatural abilities (flight, shape-shifting, control over elements)
• Notable examples include:
  • Zhang Guolao, an eccentric immortal who rides backwards on a donkey
  • Lü Dongbin, master of internal alchemy and patron of scholars

Buddhist influences

• Buddhism entered China around the 1st century CE, profoundly impacting Chinese mythology
• Introduced new deities, cosmological concepts, and ethical principles
• Resulted in a syncretic blend of Buddhist, Taoist, and traditional Chinese beliefs

Bodhisattvas in Chinese mythology

• Avalokiteshvara became Guanyin, goddess of mercy and compassion
• Ksitigarbha transformed into Dizang, protector of souls in the underworld
• Manjusri (Wenshu) associated with wisdom and sacred Mount Wutai
• Bodhisattvas often depicted with Chinese features and attire
• Integrated into pre-existing Chinese pantheon and folk beliefs

Syncretism with local deities

• Buddhist figures absorbed characteristics of indigenous Chinese gods
• Local deities reinterpreted as manifestations of Buddhist beings
• Creation of uniquely Chinese Buddhist schools (Chan, Pure Land)
• Development of Buddhist-influenced myths and legends (Journey to the West)
• Incorporation of Buddhist elements into traditional Chinese festivals and rituals

Nature deities

• Chinese mythology places great emphasis on the sacredness of natural phenomena
• Reflects the agricultural society's dependence on natural forces
• Blends animistic beliefs with more structured religious and philosophical systems

Mountain and river gods

• Five Sacred Mountains associated with cardinal directions and center
  • East: Mount Tai, most revered, linked to sunrise and rebirth
  • West: Mount Hua, known for its treacherous peaks
  • South: Mount Heng, associated with longevity
  • North: Mount Heng (different character), connected to water and winter
  • Center: Mount Song, represents stability and balance
• River gods control water flow, floods, and droughts
  • Yellow River God (He Bo) transformed from a human to a fish to a dragon
  • Goddess of the Luo River inspired poetry and art

Animal spirits and transformations

• Belief in animals possessing magical powers and ability to shape-shift
• Fox spirits (huli jing) known for seduction and wisdom
• Tiger spirits associated with protection and military prowess
• Monkey spirits (inspired by Sun Wukong) embody cleverness and rebellion
• Dragon-human transformations in imperial lineage myths
• Concept of yaoguai: animal spirits that can attain human form through cultivation

Legendary heroes and sages

• Mythical figures who played crucial roles in establishing Chinese civilization
• Often portrayed as both historical and divine beings
• Embody ideal virtues and qualities valued in Chinese culture

Yellow Emperor

• Huangdi, legendary sovereign and cultural hero
• Credited with numerous inventions (writing, medicine, compass)
• Achieved immortality by taming a dragon and ascending to heaven
• Considered the ancestor of all Han Chinese people
• Central figure in the creation of Chinese medicinal practices and texts

Fuxi and Shennong

• Fuxi: First of the Three Sovereigns in Chinese mythology
  • Taught humans hunting, fishing, and animal domestication
  • Created the Eight Trigrams, basis for I Ching divination
  • Often depicted with a snake's tail and his sister/wife Nüwa
• Shennong: Divine Farmer and inventor of agriculture
  • Discovered medicinal herbs by personally testing hundreds of plants
  • Introduced tea cultivation and the use of the plow
  • Associated with the development of Chinese herbal medicine
  • Often portrayed with a transparent stomach to observe effects of herbs

Mythical creatures

• Chinese mythology features a rich bestiary of supernatural beings
• Often combine features of multiple animals or blend animal and human characteristics
• Possess symbolic meanings and are frequently used in art and literature

Phoenix and dragon symbolism

• Dragon (long) represents yang energy, emperors, and masculine power
  • Controls water, brings rain, and symbolizes good fortune
  • Imperial emblem featuring five-clawed dragon
  • Different types: celestial, earthly, treasure-guarding
• Phoenix (fenghuang) embodies yin energy, empresses, and feminine virtue
  • Associated with fire, sun, and rebirth
  • Appears only in times of peace and prosperity
  • Composite of multiple birds, each part symbolizing a virtue

Qilin and other auspicious beasts

• Qilin: chimera-like creature with dragon's head, deer's body, and ox's tail
  • Symbol of wisdom, longevity, and gentleness
  • Appears to herald the birth or death of a sage or virtuous ruler
• Pixiu: winged lion-like beast that attracts and protects wealth
• Bixie: chimera that wards off evil spirits and brings good fortune
• Luduan: deer-like creature with the ability to detect lies and falsehoods

Underworld mythology

• Chinese conception of the afterlife involves a complex bureaucratic system
• Reflects beliefs in karma, reincarnation, and ancestral veneration
• Integrates elements from Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religion

Diyu and afterlife beliefs

• Diyu: Chinese realm of the dead, consisting of multiple levels or courts
• Souls undergo judgment and punishment for earthly misdeeds
• Ten Courts of Hell, each overseen by a fearsome judge
• Various tortures and punishments tailored to specific sins
• Concept of (metempsychosis) rebirth after serving time in Diyu
• Rituals and offerings performed by living relatives to aid deceased in afterlife

Yama and judges of the dead

• Yama (Yanluo Wang): King of Hell and supreme judge of the dead
• Assisted by various officials, including the ox-headed and horse-faced guards
• Judges examine the life records of deceased souls
• Meng Po: Lady of Forgetfulness who ensures reincarnating souls forget past lives
• Judges can be appealed to or bribed through ritual offerings by living relatives

Modern interpretations

• Chinese mythology continues to evolve and adapt in contemporary society
• Serves as a source of cultural identity and inspiration for creative works
• Reinterpreted through various media and artistic expressions

Chinese gods in literature

• Classical novels like "Journey to the West" and "Investiture of the Gods" popularized mythological themes
• Modern authors incorporate traditional deities into fantasy and science fiction genres
• Reinterpretation of myths to address contemporary social and philosophical issues
• Exploration of gender roles and power dynamics through mythological figures
• Use of mythological elements in wuxia (martial arts) literature

Mythology in popular culture

• Chinese myths and legends adapted into films, TV series, and animations
• Video games featuring Chinese mythological characters and settings
• Comic books and graphic novels reimagining traditional stories for modern audiences
• Integration of mythological elements in contemporary art and fashion design
• Revival of interest in traditional beliefs and practices among younger generations