10.1 Historical resistance to colonization and assimilation

Native Americans have long resisted colonization and assimilation efforts. They maintained spiritual practices, preserved cultural traditions, and adapted European tools to support their resistance. These strategies were crucial for maintaining their identities and autonomy in the face of oppressive policies.

Armed conflicts and uprisings were also part of Native American resistance. Major battles like Little Bighorn and the Pueblo Revolt demonstrated their determination to protect their lands and way of life. Native leaders like Tecumseh and Sitting Bull played key roles in organizing resistance efforts.

Strategies of resistance

• Native American communities developed various strategies to resist colonization and assimilation efforts by European settlers and the U.S. government
• These strategies included maintaining spiritual practices, preserving cultural traditions, and adapting European tools to support their resistance efforts
• Resistance strategies were crucial for Native American communities to maintain their identities and autonomy in the face of oppressive policies and actions

Spiritual practices as resistance

Top images from around the web for Spiritual practices as resistance

• 

  Ghost Dance - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Así era la Danza del Sol, el atroz ritual de los indios americanos View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Sun Dance | A diorama at the American Museum of Natural Hist… | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Ghost Dance - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Así era la Danza del Sol, el atroz ritual de los indios americanos View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Spiritual practices as resistance

• 

  Ghost Dance - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Así era la Danza del Sol, el atroz ritual de los indios americanos View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Sun Dance | A diorama at the American Museum of Natural Hist… | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Ghost Dance - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Así era la Danza del Sol, el atroz ritual de los indios americanos View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Native American communities often used spiritual practices as a form of resistance against colonization and assimilation efforts
• Continuing traditional ceremonies and rituals helped maintain cultural identity and unity within the community (Sun Dance, Ghost Dance)
• Spiritual leaders played a significant role in guiding their people and providing hope during difficult times (Wovoka, Smohalla)
• European settlers and the U.S. government often misunderstood and feared Native American spiritual practices, leading to further attempts at suppression

Maintaining cultural traditions

• Preserving cultural traditions was essential for Native American communities to resist assimilation and maintain their identities
• Traditional art forms, such as pottery, weaving, and beadwork, served as a means of cultural expression and resistance (Navajo rugs, Pueblo pottery)
• Continuing traditional food practices, such as hunting, gathering, and agriculture, helped maintain cultural connections to the land and ancestors
• Passing down cultural knowledge through generations ensured the survival of Native American traditions and identities

Adapting European tools for resistance

• Native American communities often adapted European tools and technologies to support their resistance efforts
• The use of horses, introduced by the Spanish, revolutionized warfare and hunting practices for many Plains tribes (Comanche, Lakota)
• Firearms, acquired through trade or capture, became an important tool for defense and resistance against colonial forces
• Native American leaders used European-style diplomacy and treaty-making to negotiate for their people's rights and protect their lands (Tecumseh, Red Cloud)

Armed conflicts and uprisings

• Throughout the history of colonization and westward expansion, Native American communities engaged in numerous armed conflicts and uprisings to protect their lands, resources, and way of life
• These conflicts often resulted from broken treaties, encroachment on Native American territories, and attempts at forced assimilation by the U.S. government
• Armed resistance was a last resort for many Native American communities, as they faced overwhelming military force and technological disadvantages

Major battles and their outcomes

• The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) saw the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho defeat the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment led by George Armstrong Custer
• Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) resulted in the deaths of over 250 Lakota men, women, and children by the U.S. Army, marking a tragic end to the Ghost Dance movement
• The Pueblo Revolt (1680) successfully drove Spanish colonizers out of New Mexico for 12 years, demonstrating the power of unified resistance
• The Red Stick War (1813-1814) was a conflict between Creek factions and the U.S. government, resulting in the forced cession of 23 million acres of Creek land

Native American military leaders

• Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader, formed a pan-Indian confederacy to resist American expansion and fought alongside the British in the War of 1812
• Sitting Bull, a Hunkpapa Lakota chief, led his people in resistance against the U.S. government and played a key role in the Battle of Little Bighorn
• Geronimo, an Apache leader, led a small group of warriors in a prolonged resistance against Mexican and American forces in the late 19th century
• Chief Joseph, a Nez Perce leader, led his people on a 1,170-mile fighting retreat in an attempt to reach Canada and escape U.S. Army forces

Shifting alliances and treaties

• Native American communities often formed alliances with European powers or other tribal nations to protect their interests and resist common enemies
• The Iroquois Confederacy initially allied with the British against the French during the French and Indian War (1754-1763)
• The Cherokee Nation split during the American Civil War, with some supporting the Union and others the Confederacy
• Treaties, such as the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) and the Treaty of Medicine Lodge (1867), were often broken by the U.S. government, leading to further conflict and resistance

Preservation of language and culture

• Native American communities have long recognized the importance of preserving their languages and cultural practices in the face of assimilation efforts
• Oral traditions, language revitalization programs, and art have played crucial roles in maintaining and passing down cultural knowledge
• Preserving language and culture has been an ongoing form of resistance against the erasure of Native American identities

Oral traditions and storytelling

• Oral traditions and storytelling have been essential for passing down cultural knowledge, histories, and values across generations
• Creation stories, such as the Navajo Diné Bahaneʼ and the Lakota White Buffalo Calf Woman narrative, provide a foundation for cultural identity and spirituality
• Storytelling serves as a means of preserving language, as stories are often told in Native American languages and contain unique vocabulary and grammatical structures
• Oral traditions also serve as a form of resistance by countering dominant historical narratives and asserting Native American perspectives

Language revitalization efforts

• Many Native American languages have been threatened or lost due to forced assimilation policies, such as boarding schools that prohibited students from speaking their native languages
• Language revitalization efforts, such as immersion schools and language classes, aim to preserve and promote the use of Native American languages (Navajo, Hawaiian, Cherokee)
• Digital resources, such as online dictionaries and language learning apps, have made language learning more accessible for younger generations
• Preserving and revitalizing Native American languages is crucial for maintaining cultural identity and resisting the erasure of traditional knowledge

Art as a form of resistance

• Native American art has long served as a means of cultural expression and resistance against assimilation
• Traditional art forms, such as pottery, weaving, and beadwork, often incorporate designs and symbols that convey cultural narratives and values (Pueblo pottery designs, Navajo rug patterns)
• Contemporary Native American artists use their work to address social and political issues, challenge stereotypes, and assert their cultural identities (Jaune Quick-to-See Smith, James Luna)
• Art exhibitions and festivals, such as the Santa Fe Indian Market and the Heard Museum Guild Indian Fair & Market, provide platforms for Native American artists to showcase their work and engage with the public

Impacts of boarding schools

• The U.S. government established a system of boarding schools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to assimilate Native American children into Euro-American culture
• These schools, often run by religious organizations, had devastating impacts on Native American communities and individuals
• The legacy of boarding schools continues to affect Native American communities today, as they work to heal from the trauma and reclaim their cultural identities

Forced assimilation policies

• Boarding schools were designed to strip Native American children of their cultural identities and force them to adopt Euro-American customs, language, and beliefs
• Children were often forcibly removed from their families and communities, sometimes by military force or coercion
• Students were prohibited from speaking their native languages, wearing traditional clothing, or practicing their spiritual beliefs
• The motto of Richard Henry Pratt, founder of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, was "Kill the Indian, save the man," exemplifying the assimilationist ideology behind the boarding school system

Student experiences and trauma

• Native American students in boarding schools often faced physical, emotional, and sexual abuse at the hands of school staff and administrators
• Poor living conditions, inadequate nutrition, and lack of proper medical care led to high rates of illness and death among students
• The trauma experienced in boarding schools has had lasting intergenerational effects on Native American communities, including high rates of substance abuse, mental health issues, and family dysfunction
• Many students experienced a loss of cultural identity and connection to their communities, as they were forced to abandon their traditional ways of life

Resilience and cultural survival

• Despite the devastating impacts of boarding schools, many Native American students and communities demonstrated remarkable resilience and resistance
• Some students used their education to become advocates for their people, working to protect their rights and preserve their cultural traditions (Charles Eastman, Zitkala-Sa)
• Many communities worked to maintain their cultural practices and languages in secret, passing down knowledge to younger generations outside of the boarding school system
• The survival of Native American cultures and identities in the face of the boarding school era is a testament to the strength and perseverance of these communities

Native American activism

• Native American activism has played a crucial role in advocating for the rights, sovereignty, and cultural preservation of Indigenous communities
• Activists and organizations have worked to address a wide range of issues, including land rights, treaty obligations, environmental protection, and cultural revitalization
• Native American activism has taken many forms, from legal battles and political advocacy to protests and occupations

Key activists and organizations

• The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968, has been a prominent force in Native American activism, focusing on issues such as treaty rights, police brutality, and cultural preservation
• Russell Means, an Oglala Lakota activist and co-founder of AIM, was a key figure in the 1973 occupation of Wounded Knee and other protests
• Wilma Mankiller, the first woman to be elected Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, worked to improve education, healthcare, and economic opportunities for her people
• The Native American Rights Fund (NARF), founded in 1970, has been instrumental in protecting the legal rights of Native American tribes and individuals

Advocacy for sovereignty and rights

• Native American activists have long fought for the recognition and protection of tribal sovereignty, which is the inherent right of tribes to govern themselves and manage their own affairs
• The fight for land rights and the return of ancestral territories has been a central focus of Native American activism (Black Hills land claim, Bears Ears National Monument)
• Activists have also advocated for the U.S. government to honor its treaty obligations, which often include provisions for healthcare, education, and economic support
• The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) of 1978, which aims to keep Native American children with their families and communities, was a result of advocacy efforts by Native American activists

Protests and occupations

• Protests and occupations have been powerful tools for Native American activists to draw attention to their causes and demand change
• The occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969-1971) by the Indians of All Tribes group sought to reclaim the island for Native American use and highlight the need for Indigenous rights
• The Longest Walk (1978), a cross-country march from San Francisco to Washington, D.C., aimed to raise awareness about legislation that would have abrogated treaties and undermined tribal sovereignty
• The Dakota Access Pipeline protests at Standing Rock (2016-2017) brought together Native American tribes and allies to oppose the construction of an oil pipeline that threatened sacred sites and water resources

Ongoing struggles and triumphs

• Native American communities continue to face challenges in protecting their lands, resources, and cultural identities
• However, they have also achieved significant victories and made progress in reclaiming their rights and preserving their traditions
• The ongoing struggles and triumphs of Native American communities demonstrate their resilience and determination to maintain their ways of life

Land rights and resource protection

• Native American communities continue to fight for the protection of their ancestral lands and natural resources from exploitation and development
• The Keystone XL pipeline, which would have crossed through Indigenous territories and threatened water resources, was successfully blocked after years of opposition from Native American tribes and environmental activists
• The Bears Ears Inter-Tribal Coalition, representing five Native American tribes, successfully advocated for the creation of Bears Ears National Monument in Utah to protect sacred sites and cultural resources
• Native American tribes have also been at the forefront of the fight against climate change, as they work to protect their lands and resources from the impacts of global warming

Reclaiming cultural identities

• Native American communities have made significant strides in reclaiming and revitalizing their cultural identities and traditions
• Language revitalization programs, such as the Navajo Nation's Diné College and the Hawaiian language immersion schools, have helped to preserve and promote the use of Indigenous languages
• Cultural events and festivals, such as powwows and the annual Gathering of Nations, provide opportunities for Native American communities to celebrate their traditions and share them with the wider public
• The repatriation of sacred objects and ancestral remains, through legislation like the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), has allowed Native American communities to reclaim important aspects of their cultural heritage

Successes in self-determination

• Native American tribes have achieved significant victories in asserting their rights to self-determination and self-governance
• The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) of 1988 has allowed Native American tribes to operate casinos and other gaming facilities on their lands, providing a source of revenue for economic development and social services
• The success of the Navajo Nation in developing a robust judicial system and police force demonstrates the ability of Native American tribes to effectively govern themselves
• The election of Native American representatives to state and federal offices, such as Deb Haaland (Laguna Pueblo) as the first Native American Cabinet secretary, highlights the growing political influence of Indigenous communities