3.1 Basketry and weaving

Native American basketry is a rich and diverse art form that reflects the cultural heritage of Indigenous communities across North America. From coiled and twined to plaited techniques, basketry serves both practical and ceremonial purposes, using materials like plant fibers, animal products, and natural dyes.

Each region has its unique basketry traditions, with distinct styles, materials, and cultural significance. Contemporary Native American artists continue to innovate, blending traditional techniques with modern forms and materials. Preservation efforts aim to safeguard this vital cultural practice for future generations.

Types of basketry

• Basketry is a traditional Native American art form that involves weaving or constructing containers and other objects using various materials such as plant fibers, animal fibers, and other natural materials
• The three main types of basketry techniques used by Native American communities are coiled, twined, and plaited, each with distinct characteristics and cultural significance
• The choice of basketry technique often depends on the available materials, the intended use of the basket, and the cultural traditions of the community

Coiled basketry

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• Coiled basketry involves stitching together coils of fiber to create a spiral structure
• The foundation of the coil can be made from various materials such as grasses, rushes, or even pine needles (Ponderosa pine)
• Coiled baskets are known for their sturdy construction and ability to hold water, making them suitable for cooking and storage purposes (acorn storage)

Twined basketry

• Twined basketry is created by passing horizontal weft fibers around vertical warp fibers, twisting them together to create a strong, flexible structure
• Twining techniques can vary, with options such as plain twining, diagonal twining, and wrapped twining (Haida basketry)
• Twined baskets are often used for gathering, carrying, and storing goods, as well as for fishing and trapping purposes (eel traps)

Plaited basketry

• Plaited basketry, also known as woven basketry, involves interweaving strips of material over and under each other at right angles
• This technique creates a checkerboard-like pattern and can be used to make flat mats or shaped into containers (Navajo wedding baskets)
• Plaited baskets are known for their flexibility and are often used for gathering and processing foods, as well as for ceremonial purposes (Hopi kachina plaques)

Materials used

• Native American basketry relies on a wide range of natural materials, primarily plant and animal fibers, which are carefully harvested, prepared, and processed before weaving
• The choice of materials depends on the local environment, cultural traditions, and the intended use of the basket
• Many Native American communities have developed sustainable harvesting practices and techniques for processing materials to ensure the longevity of their basketry traditions

Plant fibers

• Plant fibers are the most common materials used in Native American basketry, with various species of grasses, reeds, rushes, and tree bark being utilized (sweetgrass, willow, cedar bark)
• The preparation of plant fibers often involves harvesting at specific times of the year, drying, splitting, and soaking to make them pliable for weaving
• Some communities, such as the Pomo of California, are known for their extensive use of sedge root in their coiled baskets, which are renowned for their fineness and intricate designs

Animal fibers

• Animal fibers, such as wool, hair, and sinew, are also used in Native American basketry, particularly in the Arctic and Subarctic regions where plant materials are scarce
• In the Pacific Northwest, cedar bark is sometimes combined with mountain goat wool to create soft, insulated baskets for storing and cooking food (Tlingit baskets)
• Porcupine quills and bird feathers are also incorporated into basketry as decorative elements, adding color and texture to the finished product (Cheyenne quillwork baskets)

Dyes and colorants

• Native American basket weavers use a variety of natural dyes and colorants to add visual interest and symbolic meaning to their work
• Plant-based dyes are derived from roots, berries, bark, and flowers, while mineral pigments such as ochre and charcoal are also used (black walnut, prickly pear cactus)
• The use of specific colors and patterns often holds cultural significance, with designs conveying stories, social status, or spiritual beliefs (Navajo ceremonial baskets)

Techniques and tools

• Native American basket weavers employ a range of techniques and tools to create their intricate and functional works of art
• These techniques have been passed down through generations and are often specific to particular cultural groups or regions
• Basket weavers use a variety of tools, many of which are handcrafted from natural materials, to aid in the weaving process

Weaving techniques

• In addition to the three main basketry techniques (coiling, twining, and plaiting), Native American weavers use various stitches and patterns to create unique designs and textures
• Some examples include the "lazy stitch" in coiled basketry, which creates a herringbone pattern, and the "skip stitch" in twined basketry, which leaves open spaces in the weave (Pomo feather baskets)
• Weavers may also incorporate techniques such as overlay, where contrasting colors are woven over the base structure to create intricate patterns (Hopi overlay baskets)

Shaping and forming

• Native American basket weavers use a variety of methods to shape their baskets, depending on the desired form and function
• Molds, such as clay or wooden forms, can be used to create consistent shapes, while free-form shaping allows for more organic and sculptural designs (Tohono O'odham "man in the maze" baskets)
• Some baskets are shaped by adjusting the tension of the weave, tightening or loosening the stitches to create curves, angles, or protrusions (Aleut twined grass baskets)

Decorative elements

• In addition to dyes and colorants, Native American basket weavers incorporate a wide range of decorative elements into their work, adding visual and tactile interest
• Beads, shells, and other small objects can be woven into the basket structure, creating intricate patterns and textures (Tlingit lidded baskets with abalone shell embellishments)
• Feathers, fur, and other animal products are also used to decorate baskets, often with symbolic or spiritual significance (Pomo feathered baskets used in ceremonial dances)

Regional variations

• Native American basketry traditions vary widely across North America, with each region and cultural group developing unique styles, techniques, and designs
• These regional variations reflect the diverse environments, materials, and cultural practices of Native American communities
• Studying regional basketry styles provides insight into the rich cultural heritage and artistic traditions of Native American peoples

Northwest Coast basketry

• The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, including the Tlingit, Haida, and Makah, are known for their intricate twined and plaited baskets made from cedar bark, spruce root, and bear grass
• These baskets often feature bold geometric designs in black and red, representing clan crests, animal motifs, and other culturally significant symbols (Chilkat weaving)
• Baskets from this region serve a variety of purposes, from storage and cooking to ceremonial use and trade (Nootka cedar bark hats)

California basketry

• California is home to a diverse array of Native American basketry traditions, with each community developing distinct styles and techniques based on available materials and cultural practices
• The Pomo people are renowned for their finely coiled baskets, often decorated with intricate designs using colored feathers and shell beads (Pomo gift baskets)
• Other notable California basketry traditions include the Chumash twined baskets, the Yokuts coiled baskets, and the Miwok willow and redbud baskets

Southwest basketry

• The Native American communities of the Southwest, including the Navajo, Hopi, and Apache, create a wide range of baskets using materials such as yucca, sumac, and willow
• Navajo wedding baskets are known for their intricate plaited designs, featuring a central "spider woman" motif representing the weaver's skill and creativity
• Hopi coiled baskets often incorporate wicker weaving techniques and are used in various ceremonial contexts, such as kachina dances and wedding rituals

Northeast basketry

• The Indigenous peoples of the Northeast, including the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Mohegan, create distinctive baskets using materials such as brown ash, sweetgrass, and cedar
• Ash splint baskets are a hallmark of Northeastern basketry, with weavers pounding black ash logs to separate the growth rings, which are then woven into intricate patterns (Mohegan painted baskets)
• Sweetgrass baskets, known for their aromatic properties and smooth texture, are often used for storing clothing and other personal items (Passamaquoddy fancy baskets)

Cultural significance

• Basketry plays a central role in the cultural practices and traditions of Native American communities, serving a wide range of purposes beyond mere functionality
• Baskets are used in ceremonies, rituals, and everyday life, reflecting the deep connection between Native American peoples and their environment
• The act of weaving itself is often seen as a spiritual practice, with basket makers imbuing their creations with cultural meaning and personal expression

Ceremonial use

• Many Native American baskets are created specifically for use in religious ceremonies, dances, and other sacred contexts
• Hopi wicker plaques, for example, are used in kachina ceremonies to represent the various spirit beings that are central to Hopi cosmology
• In some communities, baskets are buried with the deceased as grave goods, reflecting the belief that they will be needed in the afterlife (Chumash burial baskets)

Utilitarian purposes

• In addition to their ceremonial significance, Native American baskets serve a wide range of practical purposes in daily life
• Baskets are used for gathering, processing, and storing food, as well as for cooking and serving meals (Paiute seed baskets)
• Other utilitarian baskets include fishing traps, cradles, and burden baskets for carrying heavy loads (Tlingit berry baskets)

Artistic expression

• Native American basketry is a highly developed art form, with weavers using their skills and creativity to create visually stunning and technically complex designs
• Baskets often serve as a medium for personal expression, with weavers incorporating their own unique styles, color choices, and symbolic motifs (Washo degikup baskets)
• In contemporary times, Native American basket makers continue to push the boundaries of the art form, experimenting with new materials, techniques, and designs (Karuk pine needle baskets)

Symbolism and designs

• Native American baskets are often adorned with intricate designs and symbols that hold deep cultural meaning and significance
• These designs can represent a wide range of concepts, from personal identity and family history to spiritual beliefs and cultural narratives
• Understanding the symbolism and designs used in Native American basketry provides insight into the rich cultural heritage and worldviews of Indigenous communities

Geometric patterns

• Geometric patterns are a common feature of Native American basketry, with weavers creating complex arrangements of lines, shapes, and colors
• These patterns often represent natural phenomena, such as mountains, rivers, and stars, as well as abstract concepts like balance, harmony, and unity (Navajo wedding basket designs)
• Some geometric designs are specific to certain cultural groups and serve as a form of cultural identity and pride (Tohono O'odham "man in the maze" pattern)

Figurative representations

• In addition to geometric patterns, Native American baskets may also feature figurative designs depicting animals, plants, and human figures
• These designs often represent important cultural stories, mythological beings, or ancestral spirits (Hopi kachina imagery)
• Figurative designs may also serve as a form of visual storytelling, with the basket's imagery conveying important cultural lessons or historical events (Tlingit Raven's Tail baskets)

Color symbolism

• The colors used in Native American basketry often hold symbolic meaning and cultural significance
• In many communities, the four cardinal directions are associated with specific colors, such as black for the west and white for the east (Navajo sand painting designs)
• Other colors may represent natural elements, such as blue for water or green for plants, or cultural concepts like purity, strength, or healing (Apache burden basket colors)

Gender roles in basketry

• In many Native American communities, basketry is primarily practiced by women, with the art form being passed down from mother to daughter through generations
• However, the gender roles associated with basketry can vary between cultural groups, with some communities involving both men and women in the weaving process
• Examining gender roles in Native American basketry provides insight into the social structures and cultural traditions of Indigenous communities

Women as primary weavers

• In most Native American communities, women are the primary basket makers, with the art form being closely tied to female identity and social roles
• Basketry is often seen as an extension of women's responsibilities in gathering, processing, and storing food, as well as in child-rearing and household management (Pomo women's coiled baskets)
• The act of weaving is also associated with feminine qualities such as patience, creativity, and nurturing, with baskets serving as a tangible expression of these values (Navajo wedding baskets as symbols of feminine skill)

Men's participation

• While basketry is primarily a female art form in most Native American communities, men may also participate in the weaving process in various capacities
• In some cultural groups, men are responsible for harvesting and preparing the materials used in basketry, such as gathering and processing cedar bark (Tlingit men's role in basketry)
• In other communities, men may create specific types of baskets for ceremonial or utilitarian purposes, such as fishing traps or hunting quivers (Hupa men's twined baskets)

Basketry in contemporary art

• Native American basketry has evolved over time, with contemporary artists continuing to innovate and push the boundaries of the art form
• Today, basketry is not only a means of cultural expression and continuity but also a medium for exploring new ideas, materials, and techniques
• Contemporary Native American basket makers are gaining recognition in the art world, with their work being exhibited in galleries, museums, and other cultural institutions

Traditional vs modern forms

• While many contemporary Native American basket makers continue to work within traditional styles and techniques, others are experimenting with new forms and materials
• Some artists are incorporating non-traditional materials such as wire, paper, or plastic into their baskets, creating hybrid forms that challenge conventional notions of the art form (Shan Goshorn's paper baskets)
• Others are exploring new shapes, sizes, and functions for their baskets, such as sculptural forms or wearable art pieces (Pat Courtney Gold's cedar bark clothing)

Native American artists

• Contemporary Native American basket makers are gaining recognition for their innovative and expressive work, with many artists achieving national and international acclaim
• Some notable Native American basket makers include Mary Golsh (Tlingit), Terrol Dew Johnson (Tohono O'odham), and Jeremy Frey (Passamaquoddy)
• These artists are not only preserving traditional basketry techniques but also pushing the art form in new and exciting directions, often addressing contemporary social and political issues in their work (Teri Rofkar's Tlingit baskets as environmental activism)

Non-Native artists

• Non-Native artists are also engaging with basketry as a medium, often drawing inspiration from Native American techniques and designs
• Some non-Native artists collaborate with Native American weavers, learning from their expertise and cultural knowledge to create new forms of expression (Lois Russell's collaborations with Hopi weavers)
• However, it is important for non-Native artists to approach basketry with respect and cultural sensitivity, acknowledging the deep cultural significance of the art form and the Indigenous communities who have developed it over generations

Preservation and conservation

• As a vital part of Native American cultural heritage, basketry is the focus of various preservation and conservation efforts aimed at ensuring its continuity for future generations
• These efforts involve a range of strategies, from museum collections and academic research to community-based revitalization programs and intergenerational knowledge transfer
• Preserving and conserving Native American basketry not only safeguards the physical objects themselves but also the cultural knowledge, traditions, and identities they embody

Museum collections

• Many museums and cultural institutions hold significant collections of Native American baskets, serving as important repositories of cultural heritage and artistic expression
• These collections provide opportunities for research, education, and public engagement, allowing visitors to appreciate the diversity and complexity of Native American basketry traditions
• However, it is important for museums to work closely with Native American communities in the stewardship of these collections, ensuring that they are cared for and interpreted in culturally appropriate ways (Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of the American Indian basketry collection)

Revitalization efforts

• In many Native American communities, basketry traditions have been threatened by factors such as cultural assimilation, environmental degradation, and the loss of traditional knowledge
• Revitalization efforts aim to support the continuity of basketry practices by providing resources, education, and opportunities for intergenerational learning
• These efforts often involve community-based programs, such as workshops, apprenticeships, and cultural events, that promote the transmission of basketry knowledge and skills (California Indian Basketweavers Association's annual gathering)

Intergenerational knowledge transfer

• The survival of Native American basketry traditions depends on the successful transmission of knowledge and skills from one generation to the next
• In many communities, elders play a crucial role in passing on basketry techniques, designs, and cultural meanings to younger generations through informal learning and apprenticeship
• Formal education programs, such as school-based curricula and university courses, can also play a role in preserving and promoting Native American basketry traditions (Evergreen State College's Longhouse Education and Cultural Center programs)
• By supporting intergenerational knowledge transfer, Native American communities can ensure that basketry remains a vital and dynamic part of their cultural heritage for generations to come