3.3 American Revolution and Native American involvement
9 min read•august 21, 2024
The American Revolution deeply impacted Native American tribes, reshaping alliances and territories. Many sided with the British, while some supported the colonists. This period marked a turning point in Native-colonial relations, setting the stage for future conflicts.
The war's outcome had far-reaching consequences for Native communities. Tribes faced , shifting power dynamics, and new economic realities. The newly formed United States government established policies that would shape Native American status for generations to come.
Native alliances during revolution
Native American tribes played a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the American Revolution, aligning themselves with either British or colonial forces
The complex web of alliances formed during this period significantly impacted Native American history and their relationships with the emerging United States
Understanding these alliances provides insight into the diverse perspectives and motivations of Native American tribes during this pivotal time in American history
British vs colonial allies
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British forces successfully recruited many Native American tribes as allies due to longstanding trade relationships and promises of protection against colonial expansion
leader rallied significant Iroquois support for the British cause
Some tribes, such as the and , sided with the colonists, creating divisions within confederacies
Colonial forces struggled to gain widespread Native American support, partly due to their reputation for aggressive westward expansion
Iroquois Confederacy's role
The powerful , consisting of six nations (Mohawk, Oneida, , , , and Tuscarora), split over which side to support
Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations generally aligned with the British
Oneida and Tuscarora nations supported the colonists, providing valuable intelligence and military assistance
This internal division weakened the Confederacy's political influence and led to long-lasting consequences for their unity and power
Cherokee and southern tribes
Cherokee initially allied with the British, launching attacks on colonial settlements in the Carolinas and Georgia
and tribes in the Southeast also predominantly supported the British
Colonial retaliation against Cherokee raids resulted in the destruction of numerous Cherokee towns and crops
Some Cherokee leaders, such as , continued resistance against colonial expansion even after the main sued for peace
Impact on tribal territories
The American Revolution profoundly affected Native American land holdings and territorial claims throughout the eastern part of North America
Shifting alliances and military outcomes during the war led to significant changes in tribal boundaries and control over ancestral lands
This period marked the beginning of a new era in Native American-U.S. relations regarding land rights and sovereignty
Treaty negotiations
Post-war treaties often disregarded Native American land claims, particularly for tribes that had allied with the British
The (1784) forced Iroquois nations to cede large portions of their territory in New York and Pennsylvania
Cherokee leaders signed the Treaty of Hopewell (1785), establishing new boundaries and trade relations with the United States
These treaties often involved complex negotiations and sometimes resulted in intertribal conflicts over competing land claims
Land cessions and disputes
Tribes that allied with the British faced pressure to cede lands as punishment for their wartime allegiance
Iroquois Confederacy lost significant territories in western New York and Pennsylvania
Cherokee ceded lands in Tennessee and parts of Kentucky
Land disputes between tribes and settlers increased as colonial population expanded westward, leading to ongoing conflicts and further treaty negotiations
Native American military participation
Native American involvement in the Revolutionary War extended beyond political alliances to active military roles
Their participation influenced battle outcomes and shaped military strategies on both sides of the conflict
This involvement had lasting impacts on Native American communities and their relationships with European-descended populations
Scouting and auxiliary roles
Many Native American warriors served as scouts, providing valuable intelligence on enemy movements and terrain
Tribes offered logistical support, including supplying food and guiding troops through unfamiliar territories
Native American allies assisted in guerrilla-style warfare tactics, which proved effective against traditional European military formations
Some tribes provided safe havens and supply lines for their respective allies
Direct combat involvement
Iroquois warriors fought in several major battles, including Oriskany and Wyoming Valley
Cherokee forces conducted raids on colonial settlements in the southern colonies
Native American combatants often employed traditional warfare tactics, such as ambushes and hit-and-run attacks
Some Native American leaders, like Joseph Brant, led mixed forces of Native American and European fighters in campaigns
Consequences for Native communities
The American Revolution had far-reaching and often devastating consequences for Native American communities across the eastern part of North America
The war's outcome reshaped tribal territories, alliances, and relationships with the newly formed United States
These consequences set the stage for future conflicts and shaped Native American policy in the early republic
Population displacement
Many Native American communities were forced to relocate due to territorial losses and conflict
Iroquois nations that supported the British, such as the Mohawk, migrated to Canada to escape retaliation
Cherokee and other southern tribes faced pressure to move westward as colonial settlers encroached on their lands
Displacement led to the fragmentation of tribal groups and the loss of traditional hunting and agricultural lands
Shifting tribal power dynamics
The Iroquois Confederacy's influence diminished due to internal divisions and territorial losses
Tribes that allied with the victorious colonists initially gained some political advantages
New intertribal alliances formed as groups sought to resist further encroachment on their lands
Some tribes, like the Cherokee, experienced internal political divisions between those who favored accommodation and those who advocated for continued resistance
Post-revolution Native American status
The conclusion of the American Revolution marked a significant shift in the legal and political status of Native American tribes
The newly formed United States government had to establish policies for dealing with Native American nations within its claimed territories
This period set precedents for future Native American-U.S. relations and treaty negotiations
Treaty of Paris implications
The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War, ignored Native American land rights and sovereignty
British cession of territories to the United States included lands belonging to Native American tribes, without their consent or participation in negotiations
This treaty effectively treated Native American nations as conquered peoples, setting a problematic precedent for future relations
Many tribes refused to recognize the legitimacy of land transfers made in the Treaty of Paris, leading to ongoing conflicts
US government Indian policies
The newly formed U.S. government initially attempted to establish peaceful relations with Native American tribes through treaties and trade agreements
The ostensibly recognized Native American land rights, but also set the stage for westward expansion
Early U.S. Indian policy focused on "civilizing" Native Americans through assimilation programs and land allotment
The Trade and Intercourse Acts, beginning in 1790, regulated trade with Native American tribes and prohibited land purchases from tribes without federal approval
Cultural and social changes
The American Revolution catalyzed significant cultural and social transformations within Native American communities
These changes were driven by both external pressures and internal adaptations to new political and economic realities
The period following the Revolution saw both increased cultural exchange and efforts to maintain traditional practices
Adoption of European practices
Some Native American communities began adopting European-style agriculture and animal husbandry
European clothing styles and manufactured goods became more prevalent among certain tribes
Christian missionaries gained increased access to Native American communities, leading to religious conversions and the establishment of mission schools
Some tribes, like the Cherokee, began developing written languages and establishing formal education systems based on European models
Resistance to assimilation
Many Native American communities actively resisted , viewing it as a threat to their traditional ways of life
Religious and spiritual leaders worked to preserve and revitalize traditional beliefs and practices
Some tribes developed syncretic cultural forms, blending traditional and European elements
Resistance movements, such as that led by in the early 19th century, sought to unite tribes against further encroachment and cultural erosion
Economic effects on tribes
The American Revolution and its aftermath significantly disrupted traditional Native American economic systems
New economic realities emerged as tribes had to adapt to changing territorial boundaries and shifting alliances
These economic changes had lasting impacts on Native American self-sufficiency and relationships with European-American settlers
Trade disruptions
Traditional trade networks between Native American tribes and European powers were severely disrupted during and after the war
British withdrawal from frontier outposts led to the loss of important trading partners for many tribes
The newly formed United States sought to control and regulate trade with Native American tribes through federal policies
Some tribes faced economic hardship due to the loss of access to European goods and markets
New economic dependencies
Many Native American communities became increasingly reliant on trade with the United States for essential goods
The fur trade declined in importance, leading some tribes to shift towards agriculture and livestock raising
Government annuities, provided through treaties, became a significant source of income for some tribes
Some Native American individuals and communities began participating in the cash economy, working as laborers or selling crafts to settlers
Native American leaders
The American Revolution period saw the emergence of influential Native American leaders who shaped their tribes' responses to the conflict and its aftermath
These leaders employed various strategies, from diplomacy to armed resistance, in attempts to protect their people's interests
Their actions and legacies continue to influence Native American history and U.S.-tribal relations
Joseph Brant's influence
Mohawk leader Thayendanegea, known as Joseph Brant, played a crucial role in aligning much of the Iroquois Confederacy with the British
Brant led Mohawk and British forces in several campaigns against colonial settlements
After the war, Brant negotiated with the British to secure land in Canada for displaced Mohawks and other Iroquois
His efforts to maintain Mohawk sovereignty and adapt to changing circumstances influenced later Native American leadership strategies
Dragging Canoe's resistance
Cherokee leader Dragging Canoe opposed land cessions to colonial settlers and led a faction of Cherokee in armed resistance
He established the Chickamauga Cherokee, a breakaway group that continued to fight against American expansion after the main Cherokee nation made peace
Dragging Canoe's resistance movement inspired other Native American leaders to continue opposing U.S. encroachment in the decades following the Revolution
His legacy influenced later pan-Indian resistance movements, such as Tecumseh's confederacy in the early 19th century
Long-term impact on sovereignty
The American Revolution and its aftermath fundamentally altered the concept of Native American sovereignty
The newly formed United States government established precedents for dealing with Native American nations that would have long-lasting consequences
These changes in sovereignty recognition and treaty-making processes continue to influence Native American legal and political status today
Tribal nation recognition
The United States government began formally recognizing certain Native American groups as "domestic dependent nations"
This recognition acknowledged a degree of tribal sovereignty while still asserting U.S. authority over Native American affairs
The concept of tribal sovereignty became increasingly complex as the U.S. expanded westward
Federal recognition processes evolved over time, impacting tribes' ability to maintain their lands, govern themselves, and access government services
Future treaty negotiations
The post-Revolutionary period set precedents for how the United States would negotiate treaties with Native American nations
Treaties became the primary means of formalizing relationships between the U.S. government and Native American tribes
Many treaties involved land cessions in exchange for promises of protection, annuities, or reserved lands
The practice of treaty-making with Native American nations continued until 1871, when Congress ended the practice, further altering the nature of tribal sovereignty