4.2 Allotment and Assimilation Era (1887-1934)

The Allotment and Assimilation Era (1887-1934) marked a shift in U.S. policy towards Native Americans. It aimed to break up tribal lands, promote individual ownership, and assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society through land allotment and cultural programs.

This era had far-reaching consequences, drastically reducing tribal land holdings and disrupting Native cultures. It ended with the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which sought to reverse some of the damage and promote tribal self-governance.

Allotment Policies

Dawes Act and General Allotment Act

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• Dawes Act, also known as the General Allotment Act of 1887, aimed to break up tribal land holdings and promote individual land ownership among Native Americans
• Authorized the President to survey Native American tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Native Americans
• Allotments were typically 160 acres for each head of household, 80 acres for each single person over 18, and 40 acres for each dependent child
• Native Americans who accepted allotments and adopted "civilized" practices were granted U.S. citizenship

Impact on Tribal Land Base and Reservations

• Allotment policies significantly reduced tribal land base as remaining lands after allotment were considered "surplus" and opened for non-Native settlement
• Led to the creation of "checkerboard" reservations where Native and non-Native land ownership was interspersed, complicating jurisdiction and land management
• Surplus lands were often sold to non-Native settlers, railroad companies, or other private interests, further diminishing tribal land holdings
• Between 1887 and 1934, Native American land holdings decreased from approximately 138 million acres to 48 million acres

Fractionation and Land Ownership Challenges

• As allotments were passed down through generations, ownership became increasingly fractionated, with multiple heirs holding undivided interests in a single parcel
• Fractionation made land management and decision-making difficult, as unanimous consent from all owners was often required for leasing or development
• Fractionated allotments were more likely to be leased to non-Native farmers or left idle, contributing to the loss of land from Native American control
• By the 1920s, the negative impacts of allotment, such as poverty, land loss, and jurisdictional challenges, were becoming increasingly apparent

Assimilation Efforts

Boarding Schools and Cultural Assimilation

• Boarding schools were established to educate Native American children and assimilate them into mainstream American culture
• Children were often forcibly removed from their families and communities and sent to boarding schools far from their homes
• At boarding schools, children were prohibited from speaking their native languages, practicing their religions, or engaging in traditional cultural practices
• Students were taught English, Christianity, and vocational skills to prepare them for life in mainstream society

Citizenship and Competency

• The Burke Act of 1906 amended the Dawes Act to grant U.S. citizenship to Native Americans who had received allotments and were deemed "competent" to manage their own affairs
• Competency commissions were established to determine whether individual Native Americans were capable of managing their allotments and financial affairs
• Native Americans deemed "competent" by these commissions were granted full U.S. citizenship and the right to sell or lease their allotments
• The competency process was often arbitrary and resulted in the further loss of Native American land as "competent" individuals were pressured to sell their allotments

Reorganization

Indian Reorganization Act (IRA)

• The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act, aimed to reverse the negative impacts of allotment and assimilation policies
• Ended the allotment of tribal lands and authorized the Secretary of the Interior to restore surplus lands to tribal ownership
• Encouraged tribes to adopt constitutions and establish tribal governments, promoting self-governance and political autonomy
• Provided for the establishment of a revolving credit fund to support Native American economic development and land acquisition
• Allowed for the creation of new reservations and the expansion of existing ones
• While the IRA had positive intentions, its implementation was mixed, with some tribes benefiting from increased autonomy and land restoration, while others faced challenges in adopting new governmental structures