4.4 Termination Era (1953-1968)

The Termination Era marked a drastic shift in U.S. Indian policy. From 1953 to 1968, the government pushed to end federal recognition of tribes, aiming to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society. This era saw the termination of over 100 tribes and relocation of many to urban areas.

This period drastically impacted tribal sovereignty and land rights. Terminated tribes lost federal benefits, governance structures, and often their communal lands. The policy's effects on Native communities were severe, leading to increased poverty and cultural disruption that still resonate today.

Termination Legislation

House Concurrent Resolution 108 and Public Law 280

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• House Concurrent Resolution 108 declared Congress' intent to terminate federal supervision and control over American Indian tribes as rapidly as possible
• Public Law 280 transferred jurisdiction over criminal and civil matters on some Indian reservations from federal to state governments (California, Nebraska, Minnesota, Oregon, Wisconsin)
• These laws marked a significant shift in federal Indian policy towards assimilation and termination of the federal-tribal relationship
• Aimed to reduce federal expenditures on Indian affairs and promote the integration of Native Americans into mainstream American society

Specific Termination Acts

• Menominee Termination Act of 1954 ended federal recognition of the Menominee Tribe of Wisconsin, resulting in the loss of their reservation and federal services
  • Menominee Tribe's communal property was divided among tribal members, and the reservation was converted into a new county
• Klamath Termination Act of 1954 terminated federal recognition of the Klamath Tribes of Oregon, leading to the sale of their reservation and per capita distribution of assets to tribal members
  • Many Klamath tribal members struggled with the sudden influx of money and lack of financial management experience, leading to poverty and social issues

Impact on Tribal Sovereignty

Termination Policy and Loss of Federal Recognition

• Termination policy aimed to end the federal government's trust responsibility to Indian tribes and eliminate the special status of Native Americans
• Over 100 tribes were terminated during this era, affecting around 11,000 Native Americans
• Loss of federal recognition meant tribes no longer had a government-to-government relationship with the United States, losing access to federal programs and services

Erosion of Tribal Sovereignty and Land Loss

• Termination undermined tribal sovereignty by removing tribes' ability to govern themselves and manage their own affairs
• Tribal land was often sold off or divided among individual members, leading to the loss of communal land holdings and cultural ties to ancestral territories
  • For example, the Menominee Tribe lost nearly 250,000 acres of their reservation land after termination
• Termination disrupted traditional tribal governance structures and left many tribes without the resources to maintain their cultural and political institutions

Assimilation and Relocation

Relocation Program and Assimilation Efforts

• The Bureau of Indian Affairs implemented a relocation program to encourage Native Americans to leave reservations and move to urban areas for employment opportunities
• Relocation was seen as a way to promote assimilation and reduce the federal government's responsibilities to Indian tribes
• Native Americans were often unprepared for urban life and faced discrimination, unemployment, and cultural isolation in cities

Urban Indian Population and Cultural Disruption

• Relocation led to a significant increase in the urban Indian population, with many Native Americans moving to cities like Chicago, Denver, and Los Angeles
• Urban relocation disrupted traditional family and community structures, making it difficult for Native Americans to maintain their cultural identities and practices
• Many urban Indians faced poverty, substandard housing, and limited access to healthcare and social services
• The relocation program had long-lasting impacts on Native American communities, both on reservations and in urban areas

Legal and Financial Aspects

Indian Claims Commission and Bureau of Indian Affairs

• The Indian Claims Commission was established in 1946 to settle Native American land claims against the federal government
• During the termination era, the Commission was used to settle claims and distribute funds to terminated tribes, often as a precursor to termination
• The Bureau of Indian Affairs played a central role in implementing termination policies, overseeing the relocation program, and managing the sale of tribal assets

Tribal Land Loss and Loss of Federal Recognition

• Termination led to significant tribal land loss as reservations were sold off or divided among individual members
• The loss of federal recognition meant that tribes no longer had access to federal programs and services, such as healthcare, education, and housing assistance
• Terminated tribes often struggled economically without federal support and the loss of their communal land base
• The legal and financial consequences of termination had long-lasting impacts on Native American communities, contributing to ongoing poverty and social issues