11.1 Historical resistance movements

Native American resistance movements emerged as a response to European colonization and American expansion. These efforts aimed to protect ancestral lands, preserve cultural traditions, and maintain political sovereignty in the face of encroachment and oppression.

Resistance took many forms, from armed conflicts to diplomatic negotiations. Native communities sought to assert their rights and defend their way of life through various strategies, including cultural preservation, political activism, and armed resistance when necessary.

Origins of resistance

• Native American resistance to European colonization and American expansion arose from the desire to protect ancestral lands, preserve cultural traditions, and maintain political sovereignty
• Resistance took many forms, from armed conflicts to diplomatic negotiations, as Native communities sought to assert their rights and defend their way of life against encroachment and oppression

Motivations for resistance

Top images from around the web for Motivations for resistance

• 

  Self-determination - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  The Allotment Era and Resistance in the Native West | US History II (American Yawp) View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  What's tribal sovereignty and what does it mean for Native Americans? View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Self-determination - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  The Allotment Era and Resistance in the Native West | US History II (American Yawp) View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Motivations for resistance

• 

  Self-determination - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  The Allotment Era and Resistance in the Native West | US History II (American Yawp) View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  What's tribal sovereignty and what does it mean for Native Americans? View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Self-determination - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  The Allotment Era and Resistance in the Native West | US History II (American Yawp) View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Protect ancestral lands and resources from seizure by colonizers and settlers
• Preserve cultural traditions, languages, and religious practices threatened by assimilation policies
• Maintain political sovereignty and self-determination in the face of expanding colonial and federal power
• Defend against violence, exploitation, and forced removal by government forces and vigilantes

Early forms of resistance

• Diplomatic negotiations and treaties with European powers to establish alliances and trade relationships
• Armed conflicts and guerrilla warfare against colonial militias and U.S. military forces (King Philip's War, Seminole Wars)
• Adaptation and selective adoption of European technologies and practices to strengthen Native communities
• Cultural preservation efforts, such as the maintenance of oral traditions and the practice of ceremonies in secret

Major resistance movements

• Native American resistance movements emerged in response to specific threats and policies, such as land seizures, forced removal, and assimilation programs
• These movements often involved a combination of armed resistance, political activism, and cultural preservation efforts, as Native communities sought to defend their rights and way of life

Armed conflicts and battles

• King Philip's War (1675-1678): Wampanoag-led alliance against English colonists in New England
• Seminole Wars (1817-1858): Series of conflicts between Seminole tribes and U.S. forces in Florida
• Red River War (1874-1875): Comanche and Kiowa resistance to reservation confinement in Texas and Oklahoma
• Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876): Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho victory over U.S. Army

Political activism and organization

• ###Tecumseh's_Confederacy_0### (early 1800s): Pan-tribal alliance to resist American expansion in the Ohio Valley
• Ghost Dance Movement (late 1800s): Spiritual and political movement to resist assimilation and restore traditional ways
• American Indian Movement (1960s-1970s): Civil rights organization advocating for Native sovereignty and cultural revival
• Indigenous Environmental Network (1990s-present): Alliance of Native communities fighting for environmental justice

Cultural preservation efforts

• Maintenance of oral traditions, languages, and ceremonies despite suppression by government policies
• Establishment of Native-run schools and cultural centers to promote traditional knowledge and skills
• Revival of traditional arts, such as pottery, weaving, and beadwork, as a form of economic and cultural resilience
• Use of media, such as radio and film, to share Native perspectives and challenge stereotypes

Key figures in resistance

• Native American resistance movements were often led by charismatic and influential leaders who rallied their communities and forged alliances with other tribes and allies
• These leaders used a variety of strategies, from diplomacy to armed resistance, to defend their people's rights and way of life

Native American leaders

• Tecumseh (Shawnee): Formed a pan-tribal confederacy to resist American expansion in the early 1800s
• Sitting Bull (Hunkpapa Lakota): Spiritual and political leader who resisted reservation confinement and fought at Little Bighorn
• Geronimo (Chiricahua Apache): Led a small band in armed resistance against Mexican and American forces in the late 1800s
• Russell Means (Oglala Lakota): Activist and leader in the American Indian Movement, advocated for Native rights and sovereignty

Allies and supporters

• European powers, such as France and Spain, who formed alliances with Native tribes to counter British and American expansion
• Abolitionists and reformers, such as Helen Hunt Jackson, who advocated for Native rights and criticized government policies
• Anthropologists and ethnographers, such as Franz Boas, who documented Native cultures and challenged assimilation policies
• Environmental and social justice organizations, who have partnered with Native communities to fight for land rights and cultural preservation

Strategies and tactics

• Native American resistance movements employed a range of strategies and tactics, from diplomacy and negotiation to violent resistance and cultural adaptation
• The choice of strategy often depended on the specific circumstances and goals of each movement, as well as the resources and allies available

Diplomacy and negotiation

• Forming alliances with European powers or other Native tribes to counter threats and gain leverage
• Negotiating treaties with colonial or federal governments to secure land rights, trade relationships, and political autonomy
• Using legal channels, such as petitions and lawsuits, to challenge government policies and assert Native rights
• Engaging in public diplomacy, such as speeches and delegations, to raise awareness and gain support for Native causes

Violent vs nonviolent resistance

• Armed resistance, such as guerrilla warfare and pitched battles, to defend Native lands and communities from military invasion
• Nonviolent resistance, such as protests, boycotts, and occupations, to challenge government policies and assert Native sovereignty
• Selective use of violence, such as raids and sabotage, to disrupt enemy operations and gain strategic advantages
• Moral resistance, such as hunger strikes and self-sacrifice, to demonstrate resolve and generate public sympathy

Adaptation and assimilation

• Selective adoption of European technologies, such as horses and guns, to strengthen Native military and economic power
• Participation in European-style diplomacy and trade to gain allies and resources for Native communities
• Adaptation of Native cultures and identities to changing circumstances, such as the development of new art forms and spiritual practices
• Strategic assimilation, such as conversion to Christianity or enrollment in government schools, to gain access to resources and protect Native interests

Outcomes and consequences

• Native American resistance movements achieved significant victories and successes, but also suffered devastating defeats and setbacks
• The long-term impacts of these movements continue to shape Native communities and their relationships with American society today

Victories and successes

• Preservation of Native lands and resources through treaties and legal battles (fishing rights, sacred sites)
• Maintenance of cultural traditions and identities despite assimilation policies and cultural suppression
• Assertion of political sovereignty and self-determination through tribal governments and international alliances
• Increased public awareness and support for Native rights and environmental justice through activism and media

Defeats and setbacks

• Loss of ancestral lands and forced removal to reservations through broken treaties and military campaigns (Trail of Tears)
• Suppression of Native languages, religions, and cultural practices through assimilation policies and boarding schools
• High rates of poverty, disease, and social dysfunction in Native communities due to ongoing marginalization and trauma
• Continued threats to Native lands and resources from resource extraction, development, and climate change

Long-term impacts on communities

• Intergenerational trauma and cultural loss resulting from forced assimilation and family separation
• Ongoing struggles for political and economic self-determination in the face of federal control and corporate interests
• Revitalization of Native cultures and identities through language preservation, traditional practices, and artistic expression
• Emergence of pan-tribal movements and alliances to address common challenges and assert collective rights

Representation in literature

• Native American resistance movements have been documented and represented in a variety of literary forms, from firsthand accounts to fictional portrayals
• These works offer important insights into the experiences, perspectives, and resilience of Native communities in the face of colonization and oppression

Firsthand accounts and memoirs

• Black Elk Speaks (1932): Spiritual autobiography of a Lakota holy man and his experiences of resistance and cultural change
• Lakota Woman (1990): Memoir of Mary Crow Dog, a Native activist and participant in the American Indian Movement
• Our History Is the Future (2019): Historical and personal account of the Dakota Access Pipeline resistance by Nick Estes

Fictional portrayals of resistance

• Ceremony (1977): Novel by Leslie Marmon Silko depicting a Native veteran's struggle to heal from war and cultural dislocation
• The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven (1993): Short story collection by Sherman Alexie exploring modern Native life and identity
• The Round House (2012): Novel by Louise Erdrich about a Native community's response to a brutal crime and the limits of justice

Themes of resilience and survival

• Preservation of cultural traditions and identities in the face of assimilation and suppression
• Adaptation and innovation in response to changing circumstances and new challenges
• Healing from historical trauma and reclaiming Native pride and self-determination
• Building solidarity and alliances across Native communities and with other marginalized groups

Legacy and contemporary relevance

• The legacy of Native American resistance movements continues to inspire and inform contemporary struggles for Native rights and social justice
• The lessons and strategies of these movements offer valuable guidance for future generations of Native activists and allies

Influence on modern activism

• Inspiration for contemporary Native movements, such as the Dakota Access Pipeline resistance and the Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women campaign
• Adoption of resistance strategies, such as nonviolent direct action and cultural revival, by other social justice movements
• Increased visibility and solidarity for Native causes through social media and international alliances
• Critique of ongoing forms of colonialism and oppression, such as environmental racism and cultural appropriation

Ongoing struggles for rights and recognition

• Fights for land rights and sacred site protection against resource extraction and development projects
• Efforts to assert tribal sovereignty and self-governance in the face of federal and state encroachment
• Campaigns to address social and economic inequities, such as poverty, health disparities, and educational barriers
• Movements to revitalize Native languages, cultures, and identities in the face of ongoing assimilation pressures

Lessons for future generations

• Importance of cultural preservation and intergenerational transmission of knowledge and values
• Power of collective action and solidarity in the face of oppression and adversity
• Need for strategic thinking and adaptability in resistance struggles, balancing short-term tactics with long-term goals
• Centrality of Native voices and leadership in the fight for Native rights and self-determination