🥼Organic Chemistry Unit 14 – Conjugated Systems and UV Spectroscopy

Key Concepts

• Conjugated systems consist of alternating single and double bonds that allow for electron delocalization
• Molecular orbital theory explains the electronic structure and properties of conjugated systems
• Conjugation leads to a decrease in the energy gap between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO)
• UV-Visible spectroscopy is a technique used to study the absorption of light by conjugated systems in the ultraviolet and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
• Chromophores are functional groups responsible for the absorption of light in conjugated systems (C=C, C=O, N=N)
• Auxochromes are functional groups that modify the absorption properties of chromophores by altering the electron density (OH, NH2, Cl, Br)
• The wavelength of maximum absorption ($\lambda_{max}$) and the molar absorptivity ($\epsilon$) are key parameters in UV-Visible spectroscopy
• The application of UV-Visible spectroscopy in organic chemistry includes structure elucidation, reaction monitoring, and quantitative analysis

Conjugated Systems Basics

• Conjugated systems are characterized by the presence of alternating single and double bonds in a molecule
• The p-orbitals of the adjacent double bonds overlap, allowing for the delocalization of electrons across the conjugated system
• Electron delocalization stabilizes the molecule and lowers the overall energy of the system
• The extent of conjugation determines the electronic and optical properties of the molecule
• Increasing the length of the conjugated system leads to a bathochromic shift (red shift) in the absorption spectrum
  • This shift is due to the decrease in the HOMO-LUMO energy gap as the conjugation length increases
• Examples of conjugated systems include 1,3-butadiene, benzene, and $\beta$-carotene
• The presence of heteroatoms (N, O, S) in a conjugated system can further modify its properties

Types of Conjugation

• Linear conjugation occurs when the alternating single and double bonds are arranged in a linear fashion (1,3,5-hexatriene)
• Cyclic conjugation is observed in aromatic compounds, where the conjugated system forms a closed loop (benzene, naphthalene)
• Cross-conjugation involves the presence of two or more conjugated systems that are connected by a single bond (1,1-diphenylethylene)
• Homoconjugation occurs when two pi systems are separated by a saturated carbon atom (1,4-pentadiene)
• Spiroconjugation involves the interaction of two pi systems through a shared sp3-hybridized carbon atom (spiro[4.5]decane)
• Hyperconjugation is the interaction between a $\sigma$-bond and an adjacent empty or partially filled p-orbital (toluene)
• The type of conjugation influences the electronic structure, stability, and reactivity of the molecule

Molecular Orbital Theory

• Molecular orbital theory describes the electronic structure of molecules based on the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO)
• In conjugated systems, the p-orbitals of the adjacent atoms combine to form bonding ($\pi$) and antibonding ($\pi^*$) molecular orbitals
• The HOMO represents the highest energy occupied molecular orbital, while the LUMO represents the lowest energy unoccupied molecular orbital
• The energy difference between the HOMO and LUMO is known as the HOMO-LUMO gap or the band gap
• A smaller HOMO-LUMO gap results in a lower energy required for electronic transitions, leading to absorption at longer wavelengths
• The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals combined
• The relative energies of the molecular orbitals determine the electronic configuration and the stability of the molecule
• Molecular orbital diagrams provide a visual representation of the energy levels and the occupancy of the molecular orbitals

UV-Visible Spectroscopy Principles

• UV-Visible spectroscopy measures the absorption of ultraviolet and visible light by molecules
• The absorption of light occurs when the energy of the incident photon matches the energy difference between the HOMO and LUMO
• The absorption of light results in the excitation of an electron from the HOMO to the LUMO or higher energy orbitals
• The wavelength of the absorbed light depends on the HOMO-LUMO gap, with smaller gaps resulting in absorption at longer wavelengths
• The intensity of the absorption is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species, as described by the Beer-Lambert law: $A = \epsilon bc$
  • $A$ is the absorbance, $\epsilon$ is the molar absorptivity, $b$ is the path length, and $c$ is the concentration
• The molar absorptivity is a measure of how strongly a molecule absorbs light at a given wavelength
• The absorption spectrum is a plot of absorbance versus wavelength, showing the wavelengths at which the molecule absorbs light
• The shape and position of the absorption bands provide information about the electronic structure and the presence of chromophores in the molecule

Chromophores and Auxochromes

• Chromophores are functional groups that are responsible for the absorption of light in the UV-Visible region
• Common chromophores include conjugated double bonds (C=C), carbonyl groups (C=O), azo groups (N=N), and nitro groups (NO2)
• The presence of chromophores in a molecule gives rise to characteristic absorption bands in the UV-Visible spectrum
• Auxochromes are functional groups that modify the absorption properties of chromophores by altering the electron density
• Examples of auxochromes include hydroxyl (OH), amino (NH2), alkoxy (OR), and halogen (Cl, Br, I) groups
• Auxochromes can cause a bathochromic shift (red shift) or a hypsochromic shift (blue shift) in the absorption spectrum
  • Electron-donating auxochromes (OH, NH2) typically cause a red shift by increasing the electron density and lowering the HOMO-LUMO gap
  • Electron-withdrawing auxochromes (NO2, COOH) usually cause a blue shift by decreasing the electron density and increasing the HOMO-LUMO gap
• The position and nature of the auxochromes relative to the chromophore influence the extent of their effect on the absorption properties

Spectral Analysis and Interpretation

• The UV-Visible spectrum provides valuable information about the electronic structure and functional groups present in a molecule
• The wavelength of maximum absorption ($\lambda_{max}$) is a characteristic property of a chromophore and can be used for identification purposes
• The molar absorptivity ($\epsilon$) at $\lambda_{max}$ is indicative of the intensity of the absorption and the concentration of the absorbing species
• The presence of multiple absorption bands suggests the existence of different chromophores or electronic transitions in the molecule
• The shape and width of the absorption bands provide insights into the electronic structure and the vibrational and rotational energy levels
• The solvent can influence the absorption spectrum by interacting with the chromophores and altering the electronic environment
  • Polar solvents can cause a red shift in the absorption spectrum due to hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole interactions
  • Non-polar solvents have minimal effect on the absorption spectrum
• Comparing the absorption spectra of related compounds can help in structure elucidation and the identification of functional groups
• Quantitative analysis can be performed using the Beer-Lambert law by measuring the absorbance at a specific wavelength and constructing a calibration curve

Applications in Organic Chemistry

• UV-Visible spectroscopy is widely used in organic chemistry for various applications, including:
  • Structure elucidation and identification of organic compounds
  • Monitoring the progress of organic reactions
  • Quantitative analysis of organic compounds
  • Studying the electronic properties of conjugated systems
• In structure elucidation, the presence of specific chromophores and auxochromes can be used to identify functional groups and structural features
• The absorption spectrum can be compared with reference spectra or spectral databases to aid in the identification of unknown compounds
• UV-Visible spectroscopy can be used to monitor the progress of organic reactions by tracking the disappearance of reactants or the formation of products
  • This is particularly useful for reactions involving conjugated systems or chromophores
• Quantitative analysis of organic compounds can be performed by measuring the absorbance at a specific wavelength and using the Beer-Lambert law
  • This technique is commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry for quality control and assay of active ingredients
• The study of conjugated systems, such as dyes, pigments, and organic semiconductors, relies heavily on UV-Visible spectroscopy to understand their electronic properties and structure-property relationships
• UV-Visible spectroscopy can also be coupled with other techniques, such as chromatography or mass spectrometry, for comprehensive structural analysis of organic compounds