👩🏻‍⚕️Pathophysiological Concepts in Nursing Unit 3 – Inflammation & Tissue Repair

What's Inflammation All About?

• Inflammation is a complex biological response to harmful stimuli (pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants)
• Serves as a protective mechanism to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury and remove necrotic cells and tissues
• Involves the coordinated action of various cells, tissues, and chemical mediators
• Can be classified as either acute or chronic depending on the duration and nature of the inflammatory response
• Plays a crucial role in the body's healing process and restoration of tissue homeostasis
• Involves four classic signs: rubor (redness), calor (heat), tumor (swelling), and dolor (pain)
• Can also lead to loss of function in the affected area due to the accumulation of fluid and inflammatory cells

Types of Inflammation: Acute vs. Chronic

• Acute inflammation is a rapid, short-lived response to harmful stimuli lasting a few days
  • Characterized by the rapid influx of neutrophils and plasma proteins to the site of injury
  • Aims to eliminate the injurious agent and initiate the healing process
  • Examples include a cut, sprained ankle, or sore throat
• Chronic inflammation is a prolonged response that can last for weeks, months, or even years
  • Occurs when the acute inflammatory response fails to eliminate the injurious agent or when there is a persistent low-grade injury
  • Characterized by the presence of lymphocytes, macrophages, and plasma cells at the site of inflammation
  • Can lead to tissue destruction, fibrosis, and loss of function
  • Associated with conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease
• Both types of inflammation involve similar cellular and chemical mediators but differ in duration and the predominant cell types involved

The Inflammatory Process: Step-by-Step

• Step 1: Irritation - Harmful stimuli (pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants) trigger the inflammatory response
• Step 2: Vasodilation - Blood vessels dilate, increasing blood flow to the affected area and causing redness and heat
  • Mediated by histamine, prostaglandins, and nitric oxide
• Step 3: Increased vascular permeability - Gaps form between endothelial cells, allowing plasma proteins and fluid to leak into the interstitial space
  • Leads to swelling (edema) and the accumulation of exudate
• Step 4: Cellular recruitment - Inflammatory cells (neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes) migrate from the blood vessels to the site of injury
  • Guided by chemotactic factors released by damaged cells and resident immune cells
• Step 5: Phagocytosis and destruction - Neutrophils and macrophages engulf and destroy pathogens and debris through phagocytosis
  • Release of proteolytic enzymes and reactive oxygen species aids in the destruction process
• Step 6: Resolution - Once the injurious agent is eliminated, the inflammatory response subsides
  • Anti-inflammatory mediators (lipoxins, resolvins, and protectins) promote the resolution of inflammation
  • Tissue repair processes begin to restore normal structure and function

Key Players: Cells and Chemicals in Inflammation

• Neutrophils - First responders in acute inflammation; phagocytose and destroy pathogens and debris
• Macrophages - Derived from monocytes; phagocytose pathogens and debris, and secrete cytokines to regulate the inflammatory response
  • Resident macrophages (Kupffer cells in the liver, alveolar macrophages in the lungs) are present in tissues and initiate the inflammatory response
• Lymphocytes - T cells and B cells; involved in adaptive immunity and chronic inflammation
• Mast cells - Release histamine and other mediators that promote vasodilation and increased vascular permeability
• Platelets - Contribute to hemostasis and release growth factors that promote tissue repair
• Cytokines - Signaling proteins (interleukins, tumor necrosis factor, interferons) that regulate the inflammatory response
• Chemokines - Chemotactic cytokines that guide the migration of inflammatory cells to the site of injury
• Prostaglandins - Lipid mediators that promote vasodilation, increase vascular permeability, and cause pain
• Complement system - Cascade of plasma proteins that enhance phagocytosis, recruit inflammatory cells, and lyse pathogens

Signs and Symptoms: How Inflammation Shows Up

• Redness (rubor) - Due to vasodilation and increased blood flow to the affected area
• Heat (calor) - Caused by increased blood flow and metabolic activity at the site of inflammation
• Swelling (tumor) - Results from increased vascular permeability and the accumulation of fluid and inflammatory cells
  • Can lead to pain due to pressure on nerve endings
• Pain (dolor) - Caused by the release of pain mediators (prostaglandins, bradykinin) and the stimulation of nerve endings
• Loss of function - May occur due to pain, swelling, or tissue damage
• Systemic symptoms - Fever, fatigue, and malaise may accompany severe or widespread inflammation
  • Fever is induced by pyrogens (IL-1, TNF-α) that reset the hypothalamic thermoregulatory center
• Specific symptoms depend on the location and type of inflammation (e.g., joint pain in arthritis, cough in pneumonia)

Tissue Repair: The Body's Comeback

• Begins concurrently with inflammation and continues after the inflammatory response subsides
• Involves the replacement of damaged or necrotic tissue with new, functional tissue
• Three main phases: inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling
  • Inflammation phase - Overlaps with the inflammatory response; clears debris and prepares the site for repair
  • Proliferation phase - Characterized by the proliferation of fibroblasts, angiogenesis, and the synthesis of extracellular matrix components (collagen, proteoglycans)
  • Remodeling phase - Newly formed tissue is reorganized and strengthened; can last for months to years
• Outcome depends on the extent of tissue damage and the regenerative capacity of the involved tissues
  • Regeneration - Complete restoration of original tissue structure and function (e.g., epithelial tissues, liver)
  • Repair - Replacement of damaged tissue with fibrous scar tissue (e.g., myocardium, central nervous system)
• Growth factors (PDGF, FGF, TGF-β) and cytokines regulate the tissue repair process
• Adequate nutrition, oxygenation, and blood supply are essential for successful tissue repair

Complications and When Things Go Wrong

• Chronic inflammation - Persistent inflammation that can lead to tissue damage, fibrosis, and loss of function
  • Associated with conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and atherosclerosis
• Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) - Exaggerated, systemic inflammatory response to a variety of insults (infection, trauma, burns)
  • Can lead to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) and death
• Sepsis - Life-threatening condition caused by a dysregulated host response to infection
  • Characterized by SIRS, organ dysfunction, and hypotension
• Allergic reactions - Inappropriate inflammatory response to harmless substances (allergens) in susceptible individuals
  • Can range from mild (hay fever) to severe (anaphylaxis)
• Autoimmune disorders - Immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, leading to chronic inflammation
  • Examples include systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, and type 1 diabetes
• Fibrosis - Excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components, leading to tissue stiffness and dysfunction
  • Can occur in various organs (lungs, liver, kidneys) as a result of chronic inflammation or repeated injury
• Impaired wound healing - Delayed or incomplete tissue repair due to factors such as diabetes, malnutrition, or infection
  • Can lead to chronic wounds, ulcers, or dehiscence

Nursing Considerations and Patient Care

• Assess for signs and symptoms of inflammation (redness, heat, swelling, pain, loss of function)
  • Monitor vital signs, including temperature, for signs of systemic inflammation
• Administer prescribed anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs, corticosteroids) as ordered
  • Educate patients about the proper use, dosage, and potential side effects of these medications
• Provide pain management through pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions
  • Use pain assessment tools (numeric rating scale, visual analog scale) to evaluate the effectiveness of pain management strategies
• Promote wound healing through proper wound care, nutrition, and patient education
  • Cleanse wounds with sterile techniques, apply appropriate dressings, and monitor for signs of infection
  • Encourage a balanced diet rich in protein, vitamins (A and C), and minerals (zinc) to support tissue repair
• Prevent complications associated with immobility (pressure ulcers, venous thromboembolism) in patients with severe inflammation or chronic conditions
  • Implement turning and repositioning schedules, use pressure-redistributing devices, and encourage early mobilization when appropriate
• Educate patients about the importance of managing chronic inflammatory conditions through lifestyle modifications (exercise, stress reduction, smoking cessation)
  • Collaborate with interdisciplinary team members (physicians, physical therapists, dietitians) to develop comprehensive care plans
• Provide emotional support and resources for patients coping with the physical and psychological impact of chronic inflammatory conditions
  • Offer information about support groups, counseling services, and patient advocacy organizations