10.1 Neural and physiological basis of emotions

Emotions are deeply rooted in our brains and bodies. The limbic system, including the amygdala and hippocampus, plays a crucial role in processing feelings. Meanwhile, neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine influence our moods and motivations.

Our bodies react to emotions in various ways. Fear activates the sympathetic nervous system, increasing heart rate and breathing. Happiness triggers the parasympathetic system, promoting relaxation. Understanding these connections helps us grasp how emotions impact our overall well-being.

Brain Structures for Emotions

Limbic System Components

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• Amygdala processes and regulates emotions, particularly fear and anxiety
  • Plays crucial role in emotional learning and memory formation
  • Contributes to threat detection and fear conditioning
• Hippocampus forms emotional memories and processes contextual information
  • Works with amygdala to create and retrieve emotional memories
  • Enables recognition of emotional situations based on past experiences
• Hypothalamus coordinates emotional responses with physiological changes
  • Regulates hormonal responses to emotional stimuli
  • Controls autonomic nervous system activation during emotions

Cortical Regions Involved in Emotion

• Prefrontal cortex handles higher-order emotional processing
  • Regulates emotions through cognitive control
  • Influences decision-making in emotional contexts
  • Modulates social behavior and interpersonal interactions
• Insula processes interoception and emotional feelings
  • Particularly involved in disgust, empathy, and social emotions
  • Integrates bodily sensations with emotional experiences
• Anterior cingulate cortex contributes to emotional awareness
  • Monitors conflicts between emotional and cognitive information
  • Facilitates appropriate emotional responses in social situations

Neurotransmitters in Emotions

Monoamine Neurotransmitters

• Serotonin regulates mood and emotional states
  • Imbalances associated with depression and anxiety disorders
  • Influences emotional learning and memory consolidation
  • Targeted by many antidepressant medications (SSRIs)
• Dopamine drives reward-related emotions and motivation
  • Crucial for experiencing pleasure and positive emotions
  • Reinforces behaviors associated with positive emotional experiences
  • Dysfunction linked to addiction and mood disorders
• Norepinephrine modulates arousal and attention in emotional contexts
  • Contributes to the intensity of emotional experiences
  • Enhances emotional memory formation
  • Plays a key role in the fight-or-flight response

Amino Acid Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides

• GABA reduces anxiety and promotes calmness
  • Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
  • Target of anti-anxiety medications (benzodiazepines)
• Glutamate facilitates emotional learning and memory formation
  • Acts on NMDA receptors in the amygdala
  • Involved in fear conditioning and extinction
• Neuropeptides modulate social emotions and behaviors
  • Oxytocin promotes bonding, trust, and attachment (parent-child relationships)
  • Vasopressin influences pair bonding and social recognition
• Endogenous opioids contribute to pleasure and well-being
  • Include endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins
  • Modulate pain perception and reward processing

Physiological Changes in Emotions

Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses

• Fear and anxiety activate sympathetic nervous system
  • Increases heart rate and blood pressure
  • Elevates respiratory rate and depth
  • Prepares body for potential threat response
• Happiness and joy activate parasympathetic nervous system
  • Decreases heart rate and blood pressure
  • Promotes relaxation and improved digestion
  • Enhances overall well-being and immune function
• Anger elevates blood pressure and increases blood flow to hands
  • Prepares body for potential aggression or confrontation
  • Can lead to long-term cardiovascular risks if chronic

Other Physiological Changes

• Sweating (galvanic skin response) increases during emotional arousal
  • Particularly noticeable in anxiety and fear states
  • Used as a measure of emotional reactivity in research
• Muscle tension changes with different emotions
  • Increases during anger and fear (preparation for action)
  • Decreases during relaxation and contentment
• Hormonal changes occur with various emotions
  • Cortisol levels rise during stress and sadness
  • Oxytocin release increases during positive social interactions

Autonomic Nervous System and Emotions

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches

• Sympathetic nervous system prepares body for "fight-or-flight"
  • Activates during intense emotions like fear or anger
  • Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy mobilization
  • Dilates pupils and bronchi for enhanced sensory input and oxygen intake
• Parasympathetic nervous system promotes "rest-and-digest" state
  • Activates during relaxation and positive emotions
  • Decreases heart rate and blood pressure
  • Enhances digestion and conserves energy

Theories and Applications

• Polyvagal theory emphasizes role of vagus nerve in emotion regulation
  • Influences heart rate variability
  • Facilitates social engagement and emotional expression
  • Proposes hierarchical response system to environmental challenges
• Emotional regulation strategies modulate autonomic arousal
  • Cognitive reappraisal alters emotional responses through thought modification
  • Mindfulness techniques enhance awareness of bodily sensations and emotions
• Dysregulation of autonomic responses linked to various disorders
  • Anxiety disorders characterized by overactive sympathetic responses
  • Depression associated with reduced autonomic flexibility
  • Cardiovascular diseases influenced by chronic autonomic imbalance