5.5 Electoral systems

Electoral systems are the rules that determine how votes translate into political power. They shape representation, party systems, and governance, with key distinctions between majoritarian and proportional approaches. The choice of system has far-reaching consequences for a country's political landscape.

Different systems impact political representation, voting behavior, and democratic stability. Factors like socioeconomic characteristics, geographic patterns, and district boundaries interact with electoral systems to influence outcomes. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for analyzing elections and political trends.

Types of electoral systems

• Electoral systems are the sets of rules that determine how votes are translated into seats in legislatures or positions in government
• The choice of electoral system has significant implications for political representation, party systems, and governance
• Key distinctions include majoritarian vs proportional systems, as well as variations in ballot structure and electoral formulas

Majoritarian vs proportional systems

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• Majoritarian systems (first-past-the-post, two-round) tend to favor larger parties and produce more stable single-party governments
• Proportional representation systems (party-list PR, single transferable vote) allocate seats in proportion to vote share, enabling smaller parties to gain representation
• Proportional systems are more likely to result in coalition governments and require post-election bargaining to form a government

First-past-the-post voting

• Plurality/majority system used in countries like the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada
• Candidate with the most votes in a single-member district is elected, even without an absolute majority
• Tends to produce two-party systems and manufactured majorities, as smaller parties struggle to gain representation

Two-round systems

• If no candidate receives an absolute majority in the first round, a second round is held between the top two candidates (France)
• Encourages strategic voting and alliance formation between the first and second rounds
• Can still disadvantage smaller parties if they fail to advance to the second round

Mixed electoral systems

• Combine elements of both majoritarian and proportional systems (Germany, New Zealand)
• Usually feature single-member districts elected by plurality alongside proportional party lists
• Aim to balance local representation with proportionality and enable smaller parties to gain seats

Impacts on political representation

• Electoral systems shape the composition of legislatures and the nature of political representation
• Different systems can lead to varying levels of proportionality, minority representation, and government stability
• The choice of electoral system has far-reaching consequences for a country's political landscape

Seat allocation in legislatures

• Proportional systems tend to produce legislatures that more closely mirror the distribution of votes cast
• Majoritarian systems often result in disproportional seat allocations, with large parties winning more seats than their vote share would suggest
• The electoral formula (D'Hondt, Sainte-Laguë) and district magnitude also influence proportionality

Minority group representation

• Proportional systems with lower electoral thresholds can facilitate the representation of ethnic, linguistic, or religious minorities
• Single-member districts may dilute minority voting power, unless minorites are geographically concentrated
• Some countries use reserved seats or affirmative gerrymandering to ensure minority representation

Coalition government formation

• Proportional systems often necessitate post-election coalition formation, as single parties rarely win outright majorities
• Coalition building can lead to more consensual decision-making but may also result in political instability if coalitions are fragile
• Majoritarian systems are more likely to produce single-party governments, which can be more decisive but less representative

Influences on voting behavior

• Electoral systems interact with other factors to shape voting behavior and electoral outcomes
• Socioeconomic characteristics, geographic patterns, and district boundaries can all play a role
• Understanding these influences is crucial for analyzing election results and predicting future trends

Socioeconomic factors

• Class, education, income, religion and other demographic variables are often strong predictors of voting behavior
• Lower-income voters may favor parties that prioritize redistribution and social welfare
• Higher-education voters may prioritize issues like environmental protection or social liberalism

Geographic distribution of voters

• Urban-rural divides, regional identities, and local economic conditions can all shape voting patterns
• Parties may develop strongholds in particular regions (Labour in Northern England, Republicans in the rural South)
• Electoral systems that use geographic districts are particularly sensitive to spatial voting patterns

Role of electoral districts

• District magnitude (number of seats per district) affects the proportionality and inclusiveness of representation
• Smaller districts tend to favor larger parties, while larger districts enable greater diversity of representation
• District boundaries can be manipulated through gerrymandering to advantage particular parties or groups

Gerrymandering and redistricting

• Gerrymandering involves drawing district boundaries to advantage one party or group over others
• Redistricting processes vary widely between countries and can be a source of political controversy
• Legal challenges and reforms have sought to combat gerrymandering and ensure fair representation

Methods of manipulating boundaries

• Cracking: Splitting opposition voters across multiple districts to dilute their voting power
• Packing: Concentrating opposition voters into a small number of districts to limit their seat share
• Tacking: Adding a diverse area to a district to complicate its political profile and make it more competitive

Partisan vs racial gerrymandering

• Partisan gerrymandering aims to benefit a particular political party, often by exploiting geographic voting patterns
• Racial gerrymandering targets specific racial or ethnic groups, either by diluting or concentrating their voting power
• In the US, racial gerrymandering is subject to stricter judicial scrutiny under the Voting Rights Act

Legal challenges and reforms

• Courts have grappled with the constitutionality of partisan gerrymandering and the standards for proving discrimination
• Some states have adopted redistricting commissions or algorithmic approaches to limit political influence
• Proportional systems with multi-member districts are less vulnerable to gerrymandering than single-member districts

Electoral systems and democracy

• The choice of electoral system has important implications for the functioning and stability of democratic governments
• Different systems can affect voter participation, government accountability, and the legitimacy of electoral outcomes
• Comparative research explores the relationship between electoral institutions and democratic performance

Relationship to political stability

• Majoritarian systems are often associated with greater government stability and decisiveness
• Proportional systems may be more prone to fragmentation and instability, particularly in deeply divided societies
• Consociational approaches using proportional representation can help manage conflict in plural societies

Effects on voter turnout

• Proportional systems tend to have higher voter turnout than majoritarian systems
• Voters may be more motivated to participate when their votes are more likely to translate into representation
• Compulsory voting laws can also significantly boost turnout, regardless of the electoral system

Implications for accountability

• Clarity of responsibility is often higher in majoritarian systems, as voters can more easily identify the governing party
• Proportional systems may diffuse accountability across multiple parties in a coalition government
• Electoral systems also interact with other institutional features (term limits, recall mechanisms) to shape accountability

Global variations in electoral systems

• Countries around the world employ a wide variety of electoral systems, reflecting their unique political histories and contexts
• Regional patterns and trends can be identified, but there is also significant diversity within regions
• Comparative analysis highlights the importance of local factors in shaping electoral system choice and performance

Regional patterns and trends

• Plurality systems are common in former British colonies and the English-speaking Caribbean
• Proportional representation is widespread in Latin America, continental Europe, and much of Africa
• Mixed systems have been adopted in several post-communist states in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union

Historical origins and evolution

• Many electoral systems were inherited from colonial powers or imposed by occupying forces
• Some countries have undergone major electoral reforms in response to changing political circumstances (New Zealand, Japan)
• The choice of electoral system is often shaped by the balance of power among competing political factions

Comparative case studies

• The United States and United Kingdom illustrate the effects of plurality systems in promoting two-party competition
• Germany and New Zealand demonstrate how mixed systems can balance local representation and national proportionality
• South Africa and Lebanon highlight the use of proportional systems to manage ethnic and sectarian divisions