🐪Contemporary Middle East Politics Unit 14 – Turkey: Balancing Secularism and Islamism

Historical Context

• Turkey emerged from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire after World War I
• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, initiated a series of reforms to modernize and secularize the country
• Atatürk's reforms included abolishing the caliphate, replacing Islamic law with a secular civil code, and adopting the Latin alphabet
• The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) established the borders of modern Turkey and recognized its sovereignty
• The early years of the Turkish Republic focused on nation-building and creating a strong sense of Turkish identity
  • This included promoting a unified language, culture, and national narrative
• Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II but joined the Allies in 1945
• The multi-party system was introduced in 1946, ending the single-party rule of the Republican People's Party (CHP)

Foundations of Turkish Secularism

• Secularism, or laiklik in Turkish, is a core principle of the Turkish Republic enshrined in the constitution
• Atatürk's reforms aimed to separate religion from state affairs and promote a modern, Western-oriented society
• The Turkish constitution defines secularism as the separation of state and religious affairs, and the state's neutrality towards all religions
• The Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) was established to manage religious matters and ensure state control over religion
• Secularism in Turkey differs from the Western understanding, as the state actively regulates and controls religious institutions and practices
• The military has traditionally been the guardian of secularism, intervening in politics when it perceived a threat to the secular order (1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997 coups)
• The ban on headscarves in public institutions, including universities and government offices, was a symbol of Turkish secularism until its gradual relaxation in the 2010s

Rise of Political Islam

• Political Islam in Turkey gained momentum in the 1970s as a response to socio-economic inequalities and the perceived failures of secular parties
• The National Order Party (MNP), founded by Necmettin Erbakan in 1970, was the first explicitly Islamist party in Turkey
  • The MNP was banned in 1971, but Erbakan continued to lead successive Islamist parties
• The Welfare Party (Refah Partisi), led by Erbakan, emerged as a significant political force in the 1990s
  • The Welfare Party formed a coalition government in 1996, with Erbakan becoming the first Islamist prime minister of Turkey
• The "post-modern coup" of 1997 forced Erbakan to resign and led to the banning of the Welfare Party
• The Justice and Development Party (AKP), founded by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and other former members of the Welfare Party, came to power in 2002
  • The AKP presented itself as a conservative democratic party, committed to Turkey's EU membership bid and economic reforms
• The AKP's electoral successes and gradual consolidation of power have reshaped the balance between secularism and Islamism in Turkey

Key Political Figures and Parties

• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938): Founder of the Turkish Republic and the main architect of Turkish secularism
• İsmet İnönü (1884-1973): Atatürk's closest ally and the second president of Turkey, who continued Atatürk's secular reforms
• Adnan Menderes (1899-1961): Prime minister in the 1950s, executed following the 1960 military coup
• Necmettin Erbakan (1926-2011): Islamist politician who founded several parties and served as prime minister in 1996-97
• Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (1954-present): Co-founder of the AKP, prime minister (2003-2014), and president (2014-present)
• Republican People's Party (CHP): Founded by Atatürk, the main secular opposition party
• Justice and Development Party (AKP): Conservative party that has dominated Turkish politics since 2002
• Nationalist Movement Party (MHP): Far-right nationalist party, currently in alliance with the AKP
• Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP): Left-wing pro-Kurdish party, often targeted by the government for alleged links to the PKK

Constitutional Challenges

• Turkey has had four constitutions: 1921, 1924, 1961, and 1982
• The 1982 constitution, drafted following the 1980 military coup, remains in force with numerous amendments
• The 1982 constitution emphasizes the indivisibility of the Turkish state and the secular character of the republic
• In 2007, the AKP's attempt to elect Abdullah Gül as president led to a constitutional crisis and early elections
  • The crisis centered around the secular opposition's concerns about Gül's Islamist background and his wife's headscarf
• Constitutional amendments in 2010, supported by the AKP, increased civilian control over the military and judiciary
• The 2017 constitutional referendum, held under controversial circumstances, transformed Turkey from a parliamentary to a presidential system
  • The amendments concentrated power in the hands of the president and weakened the system of checks and balances
• Critics argue that the AKP's constitutional changes have eroded the secular foundations of the Turkish Republic and enabled a more authoritarian form of governance

Social and Cultural Tensions

• Turkish society is deeply divided along secular-religious lines, with tensions often manifesting in debates over lifestyle, education, and public space
• The headscarf issue has been a major point of contention, with secularists viewing it as a symbol of political Islam and religious conservatives seeing it as a matter of personal freedom
• The Alevi minority, a heterodox Muslim community, has faced discrimination and marginalization in predominantly Sunni Turkey
• The Kurdish question remains unresolved, with the Kurdish minority seeking greater cultural and political rights
  • The conflict between the Turkish state and the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) has claimed over 40,000 lives since 1984
• The Gezi Park protests in 2013, which began as a small environmental demonstration, evolved into a broader movement against the AKP's perceived authoritarianism and erosion of secular values
• The failed coup attempt in July 2016, allegedly orchestrated by the Gülen movement, led to a massive purge of suspected Gülenists from state institutions and civil society
• The government's crackdown on dissent, media freedoms, and civil society organizations has exacerbated social and cultural tensions

Economic Factors

• Turkey's economy has experienced significant growth and transformation since the 1980s, with a shift towards export-oriented industrialization and market liberalization
• The AKP's early years in power were marked by strong economic growth, driven by reforms, foreign investment, and a construction boom
• Turkey's strategic location and customs union with the EU have made it an attractive destination for foreign investment
• However, Turkey's economy has faced challenges in recent years, including high inflation, currency depreciation, and rising unemployment
  • The Turkish lira has lost over 50% of its value against the US dollar since 2018
• The government's unorthodox economic policies, such as keeping interest rates low despite high inflation, have contributed to economic instability
• The COVID-19 pandemic has further strained Turkey's economy, with the tourism sector particularly hard hit
• Economic grievances, particularly among the youth and the middle class, have fueled anti-government sentiment and protests
• The government's response to economic challenges has often been to prioritize short-term growth over long-term stability, raising concerns about the sustainability of Turkey's economic model

Turkey's International Relations

• Turkey is a member of NATO and has been a candidate for EU membership since 1999
• Turkey's relations with the EU have been strained by concerns over democratic backsliding, human rights violations, and the refugee crisis
• Turkey has played a key role in the Syrian conflict, hosting over 3.6 million Syrian refugees and intervening militarily in northern Syria
• The purchase of Russian S-400 missile defense systems has led to tensions with the US and other NATO allies
• Turkey has sought to expand its influence in the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans through a combination of soft power, economic ties, and military interventions
  • This has included support for the Muslim Brotherhood and other Islamist groups in the region
• Turkey's relations with Greece and Cyprus remain tense, with disputes over maritime boundaries, energy exploration rights, and the divided island of Cyprus
• The government's assertive foreign policy, often framed in neo-Ottoman terms, has raised concerns among Turkey's neighbors and Western allies
• Turkey has also sought to strengthen ties with Russia, China, and other non-Western powers, reflecting a shift towards a more multi-vector foreign policy

Current State and Future Outlook

• Turkey remains deeply polarized along political, social, and cultural lines, with the AKP's dominance increasingly challenged by opposition parties and civil society
• The government's crackdown on dissent, erosion of institutional checks and balances, and personalization of power around President Erdoğan have raised concerns about the future of Turkish democracy
• The Kurdish question and the ongoing conflict with the PKK continue to pose significant challenges to Turkey's stability and regional relations
• Economic instability, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic and unorthodox policies, threatens to undermine the AKP's popularity and legitimacy
• Turkey's foreign policy, characterized by a more assertive and independent stance, has strained its traditional alliances and raised tensions with neighbors
• The refugee crisis and Turkey's role in the Syrian conflict have made it a key player in regional and European politics, but also exposed it to significant security and humanitarian challenges
• The future of Turkey's EU accession process remains uncertain, with progress largely stalled due to concerns over democratic backsliding and human rights violations
• The 2023 presidential and parliamentary elections will be a critical test for Turkey's democracy and the AKP's continued dominance of the political landscape
  • Opposition parties have formed alliances to challenge the AKP, but face significant obstacles in the form of media bias, electoral irregularities, and the government's control over state resources
• Ultimately, Turkey's ability to navigate the challenges of balancing secularism and Islamism, addressing social and cultural tensions, and maintaining economic stability and democratic norms will shape its future trajectory as a regional power and a bridge between the West and the Islamic world.